The great age of papier mache is English of the Georgian and Victorian periods, but the origins of this unusual craft are a thousand years old. One early Chinese use of papier mache was as a material for war helmets, which were then toughened with lacquer Another example was the recent discovery of some red lacquered pot lids attributed to the Han Dynasty circa 206 a.d.
The term papier mache, which is composed of French words, appears not to be of French origin. The phrase was probably used by the French emigre workers in the London papier-mache shops of the eighteenth century At that time, the pulp was descriptively and colorfully referred to in English as chewed paper. The French words for the verb to chew is matcher, and, of course, papier is paper
The paper industry did not flourish in England until the end of the seventeenth century The manufacture of papier mache began shortly afterwards, early in the eighteenth century, as paper products began to be used more widely. Paper pulp consisted of mashed paper mixed with a binder of glue and gum arabic. Sometimes flour, sawdust or plaster was added, depending on the purpose for which the pulp was to be used. This prepared pulp was molded into articles like inkstands, card trays, bread baskets and other small items. The hand-turned molds were made of wood with a hole in the center through which the excess water and paste drained away. Some molds had intaglio designs cut into them for obtaining raised figures on the surface of the object. As more sophisticated techniques of pressing, molding and shaping were developed, more intricate and complex products appeared.
One of the most innovative uses for papier mache was for wall and ceiling moldings. In 1778 a Frenchman, in admiration of this English style and its practicality, wrote: "The English cast in cardboard the ceiling ornaments that we make in plaster They are more durable, break off with difficulty, or if they do break off, the danger is of no account and the repair less expensive"
At Horace Walpole's Strawberry Hill, a bedroom ceiling had star and quatrefoil compartments with roses at the intersections, all made of papier mache. In Alscot Park in Warwickshire, a fireplace was ornamented with flower festoons in burnished gold. Even the House of Lords, when it was rebuilt after the fire of 1834, had ceiling cornices and wall moldings of papier mache.
Most of the papier mache, however, was used for furniture and accessories, and these were ornamented with lacquer, gold, paint in various colors and mother-of-pearl. Chairs and tables, small in size but sturdily constructed, were popular The sewing table in the accompanying photograph is a fine example. Dated 1850, it is stenciled in gold with inlaid mother-of-pearl and chinoiserie painting. Elaborate bedroom suites were created and decorated with colorful floral panels and gilt edging. Trays were made in all sizes and shapes, and their decoration ran the gamut. Also in demand were small chests, tea caddies, albums and lap desks. Freestanding screens and wall panels were practical adjuncts to the earlier ceiling and wall moldings. Most of them were decorated in the Chinese style. Oriental figures and landscapes were drawn with metal leaf, paint or imitation tortoise shell. Then the faces and hands were made of a mixture of whiting and varnish that was laid onto the drawn figures and molded with small sticks or modeling tools. When dry they were painted pink or white, and the features were drawn in. This made for an interesting three-dimensional quality
The Italians probably learned to make papier mache from the Orient via the Venetian trade, and from there the art spread to Persia and India. There were excellent craftsmen in Germany who produced tobacco and snuff boxes as well as molded toys and doll heads. In Russia, lacquering on papier mache was first done by peasant craftsmen who created a distinctive kind of folk art. And in America, where English style has always been valued, papier mache has been sought after since Washington used it in his Mount Vernon home.
The popularity of papier mache in furniture and accessories, is not surprising. It is highly decorative and fits perfectly into the English country style so many designers favor. I have used a papier mache a small chest as an end table and a tray made into a coffee table. It furnished just the right touch of whimsey to a formal sitting room with colorful floral panels and gilt edging.
There are several places in New York to find papier mache, One good source is Kentshire Galleries on East 12th Street, where we found the illustrated sewing table. Another is Garvin Mecking, around the corner on 11 th Street. I have bought small but choice pieces of papier mache(I remember best a perpetual calendar) from Vito Giallo on Madison Avenue. And for exquisite papier mache mantel and wall clocks, try Fanelli's Antique Timepieces on Madison Avenue.
The use of ornamental borders to surround and enhance a picture dates back to antiquity The earliest frames were really suggestions of edges-a bas-relief, mosaic or fresco outlined with a margin of the same material in a contrasting color or an ornamental figure in a linear design. Walls and ceilings were natural frames for most paintings, just as niches for sculpture were part of architectural plans.
The need for frames did not arise until painting evolved as a portable art in the Middle Ages. These early works were made of wood, and the first frames were probably necessary to reinforce the wooden panels and keep them from warping. The borders for these pictures were made by the artist, who considered the frame an extension of the painting itself. The arched and vaulted outer edges of the frames reflected the Gothic architecture for which they were created, and the rich ornate gold decoration was full of religious symbolism that underlined the ecclesiastical paintings.
As the demand for portable paintings increased, painters confined themselves to painting, and the need for fine frames launched a new craft. Artisans evolved into artists, and picture frames grew more significant. Frames played an increasingly important role as reflections of architectural style and interior decoration. By the 15th century subjects for paintings began to move away from the purely devout. Frames became less elaborate and more specific to the nature of the painting.
The Renaissance brought to frames, as it did to many other art forms, a new dimension of excitement and creativity. Italian Renaissanceframes, often works of art in their own right, mirrored the exuberance of the architecture, with elaborately carved and gilded columns, pilasters and pediments. The richness of the frames reinforced and heightened the glowing images of the paintings inside them.
Italian Renaissance frame makers influenced French artists and craftsmen of the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period the courts of France were bursting with artistic creativity. Rich, dramatic frames were designed to complement the larger-than-life subjects of baroque paintings and enhance the opulent interiors of royal and noble homes.
In England, frame making reached its zenith in the late 17th and 18th centuries. Leading furniture makers such as Thomas Chippendale and William Kent included ideas for frames in their pattern books, and their styles displayed the refinements of their furniture designs. Grinling Gibbons, whose exquisite carvings of birds, fruits, flowers and streamers were unrivaled, brought an unsurpassed elegance to the art of the frame.
The Adam brothers also designed frames as well as furniture and an chitecture during this period, and Robert Adam incorporated frames into the interior design of the stately homes he planned. He went one step further by designing frames for specific pieces of furniture.
Although foreign styles influenced the evolution of frames in America, early domestic designs were very simple. Typical colonial shapes were plain or crossover moldings, crudely carved and nailed. Sometimes the frames were painted with flowers or false wood graining. As the country developed, its fashion and furniture demonstrated a simpler style, less elaborate than European design.
The frames in the photograph illustrate a wide variety of styles and mate rials. On the left is a German Black Forest frame, a fantasy of twigs, vines, leaves and flowers in carved walnut. To the right is an Anglo-Indian frame of pecanwood inlaid with ivory and ebony The two frames in the middle are French; the small oval is made of Boulle (marquetry in tortoiseshell and brass) and the miniature is framed in basse taille enamel. The frames at the bottom are both English. To the left is a very popular Victorian style, a bird's-eye maple frame with an inner rim of gilt. To the right is a frame of wood with gesso (a chalky substance mixed with sizing and applied in layers before gilding or painting) inner and outer borders. This style is traditionally used for portraits. The two frames at the top were found at Vito Giallo on Madison Avenue, the Boulle frame was a gift and the others were unearthed in flea markets. H. Heydenryk, on East 76th Street, has an astonishing collection of antique frames in an endless variety of size, period and country of origin. The APF Gallery, a frame maker of reproduction frames, does expert work in the restoration of antiques.
Majolica is the generic term for a broad category of tinglazed earthenware which has been produced over several centuries in many countries under various labels. In Holland it is called delft, in France faience and in Italy maiolica. In England it has been produced by Whieldon, Wedgwood and Minton, among others. American factories like Milford and Griffen, Smith and Hill continued the manufacture of this popular ware.
Majolica was first created in Italy in the 15th century In Urbino, a local artisan discovered a new technique for making a beautiful white lustrous glaze for pottery It was immediately fashionable, taken up as a specially of many royal Italian families and used by artists and sculptors of the Renaissance for portrait busts and plaques, and even for serving dishes. On the white opaque surface were laid the five master colors of the Italian painters: blue, green, yellow, purple and orange plus a brilliant ruby accent. This unusual and beautiful earthenware was produced until the middle of the 16th century when, for a variety of reasons, artists turned to other forms. Examples of magnificent Renaissance majolica may still be seen in major European museums like the Bargello in Florence.
The next chapter in the history of majolica takes place in France. Just as the art was waning in Italy a French potter named Bernard Pallissey, working independently, discovered the secret of the white glaze which must cover the earthen body so that the subsequent color glazes can attain their fullest lustre. His period of creativity in the middle of the 16th century, set a standard that has never been surpassed, Pallissey and his many followers in France and Germany strove for exotic effects in the molding of shapes as well as colors that were strong and vibrant. The influence of Pallissey on subsequent pottery design is most pronounced in the themes he drew from nature. He portrayed fish and snakes, shells and plants, flowers and leaves, and these motifs are still dominant in the decoration of majolica.
By the 18th century faience was popular all over Europe. The delft of Holland was characterized by the unusual bluish white character of the glaze. Its decoration and coloring, however were influenced more by Chinese motifs and by the glory of 17th century Dutch landscape painting than by the French or Italian designs. The main contribution that delft made to later majolica style was the more delicate texture of its pottery
In England in 1754 Thomas Whieldon, a distinguished potter who had already developed a colored highgloss product called agate ware, top toiseshell or simply Whieldon ware, formed a partnership with Josiah Wedgwood that was to last for five years. During that period the firm turned out tortoiseshell dishes, cauliflower jugs and teapots with crab-stock handles. Wedgwood experimented with many techniques until he was able to produce that fine green glaze that has become the distinguishing colon almost the hallmark of old majolica.
Although majolica continued to be popular until the end of the 18th century the Europeans turned their attention to fine porcelain, and it was not until the middle of the 19th century and the Victorian Era that majolica resurfaced. Herbert Minton is credited with a revival of interest with his display of majolica at the Great Exhibition of 1851. The new version was very different from the white pottery with the distinctive Moorish patterns of Renaissance Italian majolica. It was strongly sculpted and boldly colored with translucent glazes to enhance the natural forms. The compote pictured here is a perfect example of Minton majolica-intricate in design, whimsical in subject and sparkling in color
One of the most creative makers of majolica was George Jones, a potter from Stoke-Upon-Trent. His pieces, signed GJ, included candelabra, two-lidded vases and elaborate tureens, and are in great demand by designers and collectors.
In the 1840s two brothers, Edwin and William Bennett, came to America from the Wedgwood factory and set up a pottery in Baltimore-the first one in this country to make majolica. It was so popular that factories were established in the states of Ohio and New Jersey in Milford, Connecticut, and the biggest one in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, under the aegis of Griffen, Smith and Hill. The American factories made the kind of majolica that was so successful in England, and it is sometimes difficult to tell the difference between the U.S.- and British-made pottery
The vogue for the English country look has sparked a new popularity for majolica. The distinctive green glaze with accents of turquoise, pink and yellow complement the flowery chintzes and sunny backgrounds of the British style. Designers are always looking for the right accessory, and majolica often fills the bill.
The Minton serving dish in the photograph was found at KM Antiques of London in New York's D&D building. This shop carries an assortment of quality majolica, including rare signed works by George Jones. Another source of fine majolica is the James II gallery on 57th Street.
The history of art has always reflected the life of man in his environment. Since man has traditionally shared his world with animals, it is not surprising that paintings of animals, alone or with human companions, exist. in the last two hundred years, however, this genre has become so popular that Sotheby's and Christie's have established separate departments for the sale of animal paintings. Called Sporting pictures, the category includes subjects like hunting, racing, shooting, wild and farm animals, horses and dogs.
In the 18th century in France, there were artists like Desportes and Oudry who painted with exquisite care the privileged dogs who accompanied the king and his court on the royal hunt. These animals-dachshunds, spaniels, greyhounds, pointers-were important enough to be given individual names, classical or colloquial, and to merit portraits singly or in elegantly arranged groups. A famous painter of exotic animals, Jean-Jacques Bachelier was best known for his depiction of the Rococo dog, a precious poodle that looks more like a wind-up toy than a living creature.
At the same time that Bachelier was memorializing the pets of the French court, the century's greatest animal painter was working in England. George Stubbs (1724-1806) wrote and illustrated papers on zoology and comparative anatomy. He observed and painted, with scientific precision, a wide range of animals from exotic cheetahs from India to the most familiar of those domestic creatures the British have assimilated into their human society, horses and dogs. Stubbs' animal portraits are remarkable in their fusion of physical and psychological reality. His White Poodle in a Punt presents a real rebuttal to the Rococo poodle by emphasizing the truth, instinct and nature of the subject. His vision encompassed the outer appearance of the dog, seen in a man-made context, but somehow managed to intuit its inner, emotional life as well, with a realism and clarity that has rarely been equalled.
Animal paintings by Stubbs are still highly prized by collectors, but there were other 18th-century English artists who created memorable portraits of horses and dogs. Thomas Gainsborough, famous for his paintings of British aristocracy, chose as the subject of his first signed picture a bull terrier named Bumper, painted alone and alert in the woods. The distinguished British architect, Sir John Soane, was inspired by a visit to some Roman ruins to create a pair of architectural drawings for a "Canine Residence." One was restrained and practical, and the second was a reflection of French architectural fantasy, including a central dome, fountains, columns and a pair of sculptured dogs guarding the entrance.
The great explosion of creativity in animal portraits took place in the Victorian era. Queen Victoria, who reigned for more than 60 years, had tremendous influence on the arts and culture of her nation. She espoused all the traditional values-home and hearth, children, flowers, horses and dogs. She and her husband, Prince Albert, had a large family and numerous pets, and she commissioned many portraits by Edwin Landseer, whom she later knighted. He became her official court painter and one of the most influential artists of domestic subjects in the 19th century. Landseer painted the royal couple, their children and many of their animals, from macaws, lovebirds and marmosets to greyhounds, Newfoundlands, terriers and spaniels. in his later works, dogs were delineated in various guises, reflecting the occupations and sometimes the social status of their masters.
Landseer's name was to become synonymous with the Victorian sensibility toward animals, but there were other artists producing work with similar motifs. The current revival of interest in the style of English country homes helps to explain the enormous popularity of this genre today. interior designers like Mario Buatta, who is also an avid collector, are combing the art and antiques market in London and New York for animal paintings to enhance the walls of their elegant, chintz-filled drawing rooms.
The illustrated portrait of a Jack Russell terrier by a Victorian English artist named John Alfred Wheeler comes from a good selection of quality period paintings by Karen Warshaw who exhibits on East 74th Street in New York. Another source is Bellechase, a shop in the Place Des Antiquaires on East 57th Street that deals exclusively with animal subjects. The auction houses publish their schedule of sales that include annual or semi-annual auctions of sporting pictures.
The life of Thomas Sheraton presents us with a curious paradox. Here was a man who earned his living as a cabinetmaker, went on to teach drawing and architecture, and ultimately designed some of the most exquisite furniture of the late 18th and early 19th century Yet, not one piece of furniture which can be directly attributed to him has ever been discovered.
Biographical facts are sketchy He was born in 1751 in Stockton-onTees, England, and he traveled from one small town to another working as a carpenter to support himself. In 1790 he moved to London, set up shop in Wardour Street, Soho, where he became a freelance teacher and designer. His first style book, called The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book, was published in four parts between 1791 and 1794. After several editions, and a Cabinet Dictionary, his final book, the Cabinet Maker, Upholsterer, and General Artist's Encyclopedia, appeared in 1805. One year later he was dead.
Sheraton's designs found instant favor among the upper classes. His early style was characterized by an absence of curved lines and an emphasis on crisp and clear details. Grace and refinement were the hallmarks of his work, and they were present in his writing tables for ladies, his dressing tables, work tables, card tables, dining tables and chairs, secretaries and etageres.
England had reached the zenith of national furniture style during the last third of the 18th century with the ascendance of Robert Adam and his brother The Adams, who replaced the rococo of Chippendale with the austere elegance of classical lines, organized the kind of atelier that would permit them to undertake not only the architectural design but also the complete furnishing and decorating of houses. The two cabinetmakble with the Adams' style were George Hepplewhite and Thomas Sheraton.
Although there were similarities between their work, each man made distinctive contributions to the art of furniture design. Heppiewhite, who flourished between 1775 and 1786, followed the Chippendale aesthetic with curved lines, intricate carving and a strong preference for mahogany Sheraton's dominance, from 1790 to 1805, was more significant. The essentials of his style were straight lines rather than curved ones, a notable lightness and delicacy of form and ornament and a preference for unusual woods, mainly satinwood.
His sketches were strongly influenced by the contemporary French neo-classicism of the Louis XVI period. In France Sheraton furniture was called Louis Seize a L'Anglaise. His later designs owed much to the prevailing Empire mode in France but this phase was not as popular or influential as his earlier work. His creativity led him to experiment with new forms. He used exotic woods like zebra, beech and tulipwood for inlays, banding and stringing. Some wood pieces were painted and others were adorned with painted bouquets of flowers, acanthus leaves, urns, feathers, ribbons or swags. These painted decorations supplemented the delicate marquetry for which he was famous. Another innovation credited to Sheraton was the use of porcelain inserts in his wood pieces. Wedgwood plaques became as popular in England as Sevres medallions had been in France. Sideboards were relatively new in Sheraton's day and he designed many elegant versions, some with brass galleries at the back to hold plates. His beds, in the French tradition, were elaborate and fanciful, often with intricate canopies.
Like many of the chairs Sheraton designed, the mahogany library chair in the photograph has straight lines and a square back. The arms are shaped and tapered. He also sketched some upholstered easy chairs, high-backed with wings or low-backed with rounded curves. His settees were airy and delicate, strongly influenced by Heppiewhite styles.
Desks, which were introduced in mid-century, were conceived with drawers or cupboards on either side of the kneehole. Sheraton drew many variations of these and other pieces of combined furniture like bu reau-bookcases. Bow front commodes, serpentine chests, kidney shaped, Pembroke and other tables-Sheraton designed them all, and did it with beauty and distinction.
Many fine examples of Sheraton furniture can be found today. Agostino on lower Broadway in New York has the illustrated chair and a good selection of pieces from this period. Down the block at Hyde Park are many specimens of Sheraton's art. Around the corner on East 12th Street, Kentshire Galleries is another establishment that continually searches the market for authentic and useful Sheraton furniture. Happy hunting!
From the tiniest jeweler's beamscale to the oversized contraption devised to weigh farm animals, scales have been created to serve specific purposes. The function has dictated the design, and from the beginning scales were strictly utilitarian. And since the objects to be measured were so diverse in size and shape, many varieties of scales were invented.
The most common type of scale is a balance--an instrument consisting of a centrally pivoted beam with two containers of equal weight on either end. This kind of scale has been used since classical times, and is traditionally made of brass with a wood base. The balancing mechanism is held across the central post, and suspended from it, on chain or wire, are two flat or rounded platforms. Material to be weighed is placed in one container while the other holds graduated weights. Balance scales have been used to weigh a wide gamut of objects from pills to powders and gold and silver, gemstones to food. As the uses of these scales became more widespread, their designs grew more sophisticated. New materials were substituted for the traditional ones; copper or silver for the central mechanism, glass, pottery or even stone for the containers. At the same time, modifications in the structure of the scales were created for aesthetic reasons rather than utilitarian ones. The variety of elaborate designs and imaginative materials coupled with a universal fascination with the concepts of movement and balance made these scales interesting to collectors.
Another kind of scale, based on the same principle, became popular in England after the Uniform Postal Act of 1840. These scales, which were constructed to weigh letters and packages, combined the balancing pendulum with split stays, called Roberval designs. The base of the letter scale was traditionally small and rectangular, the central mechanism wide and short, and the two weighing platforms rested on the horizontal balancing arm. Often the weights were set into the base.
These postal scales became very popular during the Victorian era. The bases, which were first made in a pear or box wood in simple straight lines, became more ornate; they were fluted or scalloped in exotic striped or burled woods. Later scales appeared in brass, silver and even gold plate. Sometimes the base was fashioned in marble or semi-precious stone like malachite, lapis or agate with matching platforms. Elaborate bases in papier-mache with painted flowers and inlaid mother-of-pearl were created; the French influence was observed in bases made of boulle (tortoise shell and brass), shagreen (sharkskin) or fine porcelain like Sevres or Limoges. Letter scales were included in ornate Victorian desk sets along with inkstands, blotters, letter racks, stamp boxes and book ends.
A fine example of a collectible English scale is one was made by Parkins and Gotto in London in the 19th century. The mechanism is not the usual split-stay design, but an exceptional single platform type in brass and wood, found in a shop called Mantiques on the second level of the Manhattan Antiques Center. Organized around the principle of gender preference, the proprietor of this establishment has a fascinating stock of scales and balances as well as other measuring instruments.
As a scale collector myself, I am always drawn to the possibilities of antique scales as accessories in residential design. On a desk, in a bookcase, on a library table or a kitchen counter, an appropriate and beautiful scale can add the perfect touch.
Elegant old scales are not easy to find. With the exception of Mantiques, which always has a selection, no one shop in New York specializes. From time to time, I have found an unusual old balance scale at Ann Morris on 60th Street. In Agostino on lower Broadway, a client and I discovered a gold plated letter scale with a fluted base and Florentine marble plaques set into the platforms. Kentshire around the corner has a plethora of small antiques in its third floor Collectors Gallery. Occasionally an elegant English postal scale turns up. Recently I spotted a complete desk set, including a scale, in a striated calamander wood overlaid with engraved and gilded brass mounts. As I stopped to admire it, another designer purchased it for a lucky client.
PHOTO : A unique single platform mid-19th century English postal scale in polished brass with a scalloped base in burled wood.
The history of mirror is rooted in myth and legend. It begins with the story of Narcissus, a beautiful youth in Greco-Roman mythology, who sat by the edge of a lake, saw his reflection in the still water and fell in love with this own image.
Water was the original reflecting mirror. It was a puzzling one to the first people who chanced upon it for several reasons. The objects that were reproduced were reversed; also, when the surface of the water was disturbed the picture shimmered, fractured and then disappeared. From these early times, however, the concepts of self-discovery, self-knowledge and self-absorption have kept artisans involved in the creation of useful and decorative mirrors.
Ancient people experimented with the principles of reflection so that they could see themselves in relation to the world around them. At first they made mirrors from highly polished stones. Later, metals like gold and silver were burnished to a shiny gloss. Hand mirrors survive from Egyptian and Etruscan tombs. They were usually small and round and decorated with semi-precious stones. The handles were ornate and exquisitely carved, sometimes with figures of beautiful women.
By the middle ages, polished mirrors were in common use in Europe and the East. In medieval England they were made with loops for hanging on gold chains around a woman's neck or on her gown. In France, elaborately carved ivory mirror cases were admired. In India, tiny reflecting mirrors were sewn on clothing to ward off evil spirits.
The earliest glass mirros were made in Venice in the middle of the 16th century. They were fashioned of the local Venetian glass backed with an amalgam of mercury and tin. Refined and polished wall mirrors and standing mirrors as well as portable ones became more and more popular in Europe, England and America during the 17th century.
The framing of mirrors during the 17th and 18th centuries took many forms and was the subject of careful study by some of the giants of English design. Grinling Gibbons, the master wood carver, Thomas Chippendale, whose furniture has never bee n equalled, William Kent and Robert Adam, the distinguished architects, all turned their hand to the design of mirrors. At the beginning of this period, looking glasses were quite small with proportionately large frames. Elaborately carved wood, embroidered stumpwork (needlework with sections of ornament raised over padding), beadwork, tortoiseshell and even chased silver were used to surround the comparatively insignificant pieces of glass. Gilding, usually applied to carved gesso, came into vogue and was enthusiastically employed by the most skilled craftsmen of the era.
As it became possible to manufacture glass in sheets of larger size, it became apparent that not only the frame but also the mirror within it had decorative possibilities. The Galerie des Glaces at Versailles, built by Le Brun for Louis XIV in 1682, was a milestone in the history of mirror, a glittering salon of reflecting glass and gilt. Its fame inspired the use of ornamental mirror in the great houses of England. These mirrors were created for the decoration of the rooms in which they were placed, and not primarily for personal admiration as had been commonplace.
Overmantel mirrors were the most popular variety. Sometimes an oil painting of a landscape or flowers was incorporated into the frame--this was called a trumeau. Pier glasses were tall mirros with ornate frames that were set on the narrow walls between windows. Cheval mirrors were long looking-glasses suspended between two columns resting on trestle-like feet; the name comes from the pulley mechanism which is used to adjust the angle of the mirror. Dressing or toilet mirrors were smaller versions that were used on tables or chests. both cheval and dressing mirrors traditionally were found in bedrooms or dressing areas.
Fine antique mirrors abound in New York. The one in the photograph (above) was found in the James II Galleries on 57th Street. It is a Victorian mirror with an elaborate wood frame; the carving is in the style of Grinling Gibbons. Hype Park Antiques on lower Broadway deals in authentic period mirrors with gilt and wood frames. David Allan, down the street, specializes in mirrors in unusual sizes and shapes. He fancies large pier glasses and mirrors with Anglo-Indian, rare wood or lacquered frames. Kentshire Galleries on 12th Street has a good selection of decorative mirrors in the English style. For simple French looking glasses try Martell Antiques on 10th Street; for ornate French frames Howard Kaplan on Broadways is the place.
During the last three centuries, the term "Tunbridge Ware" has been used to describe several kinds of small wooden objects made by British craftsmen in an area of Kent called Tonbridge. More recently it has become synonymous with a specific type of woodenware adorned with a characteristic decoration of colored wood mosaic developed in the 1820s. The production of these pieces centered in a town called Tunbridge Wells which had a history as a vacation resort, and the ornamental boxes and bowls, games, picture frames and urns became popular as souvenirs of a holiday stay.
The discovery of the chalybeate health-giving water in 1606 at Tunbridge Wells, and the ensuing development of the town as a fashionable spa, created a small cottage industry of local artisans turning out novel items for the visiting gentry. Abundant forests and a rich variety of decorative woods had always encouraged cabinet making and wood working in the area, and treen (which is the generic term for small woodenware) was a traditional favorite.
Ironically, on the eve of the great breakthrough in technique that set the seal on Tunbridge Ware as a distinct craft with boundless artistic permutations, the society that had inadvertently given rise to the growth of the industry drifted slowly away in search of more exciting diversions at Brighton and Bath.
The invention of mosaic work is generally ascribed to James Burrows at the beginning of the 19th century. The principle on which it is based is the use of blocks made of sticks of wood in contrasting colors. By cutting across the blocks at various angles, Burrows realized that he could create a variety of patterns. To produce stickware, as it is called, pieces of square, round, triangular or lozenge-shaped wood in 6- or 7-in. lengths in different colors were grouped to form circular bundles, then glued together using wet string to hold them all in place while the animal glue dried. With larger blocks, concentric rings of sticks were built in layers. When these blocks were turned on the lathe, the curvilinear patterns of stickware would emerge.
This basic technique lent itself to endless permutations. Typical mosaic patterns were rendered in woods like yew, cherry, maple, holly, satin, beech, plum and sycamore. More exotic variations in color--white, red, yellow, green and black--were produced without artificial dyeing. Green wood, for example, was obtained locally from oak trees that had been attacked by a fungus that stained the tissues a brillant emerald, and ebony was discovered in black and rare red varieties. All in all, about forty kinds of wood were employed.
Another familiar Tunbridge pattern was the cube. This design was rendered in a wide range of textures and markings. The pieces of veneer were applied individually in the manner of parquet. The cube pattern became popular towards the end of the 18th century and continued until Tunbridge Ware ceased to be manufactured in the 1930s.
The lap desk in the photograph is a prime example of the genre, and it clearly illustrates several Tunbridge techniques. On the lid is a panel of cube pattern. Below it is an intricate rendering of Herstmonceux Castle in a combination of textured mosaic and marquetry. The surrounding borders of flowers and leaves are created in mosaic inspired by or adapted from Berlin woolwork patterns. These designs are drawn on graph paper like embroidery sheets, with each square marked for the proper wood. The inside of the desk is inlaid with geometric borders.
This writing box and many other prime examples of Tunbridge Ware can be found at Antique Cache in the Manhattan Antiques Center on Second Avenue in New York. Mrs. Steinberg, the doyenne, has gathered an assortment of this unusual woodenware. Letter boxes, tea caddies, writing desks, glove boxes, stamp boxes, book racks, inkstands, pin trays, sewing stands and dresser sets, and all in mint condition, have been bought and sold here.
Tunbridge Ware is easily recognized and highly prized, but pieces of it can be found. Garvin Mecking on East 11th Street, New York, has an occasional item of Tunbridge; so does Kentshire Galleries on East 12th Street. Vito Giallo on Madison Avenue in the 70s has a penchant for English woodenware, and his shop is worth a visit.
Beautiful accessories are the hallmark of a fine decorating job. One of the most successful ways to complete a room with style is with the judicious use of throw pillows. A profusion of exquisite cushions made from a variety of antique textiles and heaped on a classic sofa instantly sets the tone of an elegant drawing room.
Throw pillows have always been popular with designers. They soften t he look of a room, period or modern. They also add, or should add, to the comfort of the people who use it. But the primary purpose of pillows is to beautify.
The pillows in the accompanying illustration are made of Aubusson, Beauvais and chintz, antique fabrics that are rare and highly prized. Here is a brief history of each, along with two other textiles, needlepoint and beadwork, which are also available in pillows for discerning collectors.
Aubusson
This name refers to the flat, or tapestry weave of French rugs as Savonnerie relates to pile or tufted weaves. Both terms describe only the construction, not the place of manufacture, the age of the rug or the period of design. The low-warp weaving began in the French town of Aubusson as early as the 13th century, and during the next two hundred years the art of tapestry spread throughout the country. Rugs and wall hangings were made in graceful flower patterns for all the fine chateaus throughout France. Aubusson weaves are still being made and valued by the French as well as the rest of the world.
Beadwork
For many centuries beads have been used to adorn clothes, to decorate articles for the home and as currency for trading. During the Victorian era, there was a dramatic revival of various aspects of the beadwork, alone or in combination with needlework, that survives in firescreens, tea cozies, pin cushions, purses and pictures. Beads were made of iron, pearl, garnet, amber, crystal and later glass, and they were worked into flower and animal compositions with great delicacy. Faceted beads created pictures with even more subtle shadings and details.
Beauvais
This is the name of a city in northern France where Colbert founded the Royal Tapestry Manufactory in the year 1664. Beauvais tapestries in silk and wool were made during the reign of Louis XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI and through the Second Empire. Following wartime destruction between 1939-45, the Manufactory was amalgamated with the National Gobelin Manufactory in Paris.
Chintz
Chintz was originally the name of painted or stained calico imported from India. Indian chintz was very popular for bed coverings and dresses, especially in the 18th cenWry. Now chintz is the name of a cotton cloth fast printed with designs of flowers in a number of colors (usually five or more) and usually glazed. In many applied patchwork quilts of the late 18th and early 19th century the pieces applied were motifs cut from chintz.
Needlepoint
In America, this term refers to all types of embroidery on canvas. The term is confusing because needlepoint also applies to lace made with a needle. Needlepoint can be fine embroidery like petitpoint, large scale like grospoint or the popular Berlin Woolwork. This is embroidery using the soft untwisted Berlin zephy on charts where one square equals one stitch.
Pillows made of these antique texfiles are in great demand, and they are not difficult to find. In New York Charlotte Moss, whose cushions are pictured here, has a wonderful selection of well-made pillows in a variety of fabrics in her delightful shop on East 70th Street. Kentshire Galleries on East 12th Street has an abundance of pillows in its third floor Collectors Gallery. Garvin Mecking, around the corner on 11th Street, has cushions in old fabrics; he also collects pieces of tapestry and needlepoint pictures that might inspire some new and original designs for decorators with special requirements.
There are several good sources for these pillows in the Design and Decorabon Building at 979 Third Avenue in New York. KM Antiques of London on the 17th floor has an interesting collection. So does Antiquities on the 15th floor. Knowledgeable dealers are finding antique textiles and making them available to the decorating trade.
Clocks have always attracted collectors, and carriage clocks are the most popular of all. They are small, easily transported and highly ornamental.
The carriage clock originated in France in the 18th century. It probably derived from the "Pendule d'Officier," the small portable timepieces that Napoleon's officers carried with them on their extended tours of Europe. These clocks were so attractive and convenient that they became the rage in France, and then later in England, America and the continent,
It is not possible to attribute the invention of the carriage clock to any one person, but shortly after 1800 Abraham-Louis Breguet, an esteemed watchmaker in Paris, was turning out some complex, finely tuned and superbly cased movable clocks like the one pictured here. They were so carefully crafted and precisely engineered that they were rare and expensive.
By the 1850s, other French horologists like Paul Garnier and Leroy were creating clocks in this form with eight-day striking movements. Examples appeared with repeating, alarm and even calendar functions. The popularity of carriage clocks spread to Britain and the United States where a wealthy class, created by the Industrial Revolution, demanded finely finished articles that were practical as well as decorative. By the end of the century there was a series of standard styles and a number of specially designed pieces, made for affluent customers or to be displayed in design exhibitions.
These portable clocks were early and elegant versions of travel clocks. They were compact in size and included a handle and a protective leather case. When a gentleman (or a soldier) went on a trip, he could lift the clock by its convenient handle and take it along. Chances are he would travel by carriage, and would hang the clock by its handle to keep track of the time. Hence the namecarriage clock.
At first every carriage clock had a rectangular gilt case, glass panels, a simple face, a fairly large handle and very little ornamentation. As time passed and expertise developed, these small timepieces became works of art from their innermost mechanisms to their sumptuous surfaces. In size, they ranged from 2-1/2 to 3 in. (miniature) to 5 to 8 in. (standard) and 12 to 18 in. (giant). The rarest and most valuable are the miniatures, which are marvels of technology. Some strike on the hour and half-hour; some strike quarter hours as well. Some rare models show the day, date and month. And some eved contain perpetual calendars that self-correct for leap years.
The greatest strides have been made in the style and decoration of the cases. In addition to the simple rectangle, there are oval clocks, hexagonal clocks and even clocks with bubble tops. Instead of the glass panels, which allowed the works to be visible, the cases are decorated in a myriad of ways. They are often made of gold or silver, or both; the metal is cast, engraved, chased, filigreed, fluted or beaded. Panels are made of ivory, porcelain, semi-precious stone like malachite, lapis lazuli or jade, various forms of enameIing like translucent enamel, guilloche, cloisonne or champleve or inlaid with mother of pearl, turquoise or other jewels.
To understand the range of precision and design that have been lavished on these small clocks, it may be helpful to peruse a new book called A Century of Fine Carriage Clocks. Joe Fanelli, who compiled the book and, with his wife Cindy, owns Fanelli Antique Timepieces on Madison Avenue, New York, has the most comprehensive collection of carriage clocks in the city, and he plans an even more extensive display for the holidays. Sometimes an intricate version turns up in an antique jewelry shop or at an auction; occasionally I see one at Kentshire or Hyde Park or David Allan downtown or in one of the antique establishments in the D&D Building. If I need one for a specific function, I start with the Fanellis.
The carriage clock in the photograph is a rare example of the art of A. L. Breguet. The case is Empire in style, made of bronze dore with fluted pilasters,glass insets and enamel dial with day-of-month and moon phase. It runs eight days, strikes the hour and the quarter hour (grande and petite sonnerie), has an alarm function, a repeat button and a perpetual calendar. The clock has been designed so that it can be wound through the back door without opening it. It is a marvel of engineering and classic beauty.
May 1988Interior DesignThe word chandelier, like so many terms in the field of design, comes from the French. Originally a chandelier was a candle holder. Candles were made of tallow, and they were used in candlesticks on a table or chest, in sconces attached to a wall or hanging overhead. In modern parlance, a chandelier is a lighting fixture of two or more arms suspended from the ceiling.
It is difficult to imagine how little light there was in a 17th-century house after dark. The strongest light came from the fire in the fireplace. Candles were used sparingly: they were expensive; also, the light would flicker and pulse, and sometimes smoke, discouraging any kind of sustained work. After nightfall, most people went to bed.
Ceiling fixtures are not mentioned frequently in inventories of English or French houses of the 17th century. In the low countries of the Netherlands, brass chandeliers were becoming more popular. Brass was produced locally, and it was used in a variety of styles. The typical Dutch chandelier of this period had six or more radiating branches from a central body that was round or ovoid in shape. These fixtures were exported all over Nothern Europe and then imitated in other countries.
As the use of ceiling fixtures proliferated throughout Europe, their design became an important decorative feature. The great polished globes and balusters glowed in the light of the candles. The branches became more intricate and were sometimes attached in two or even three tiers. The effect was often enhanced by small plates which were set on the arms to catch the light.
The most striking 17th-century innovations came in France from the use of rock crystal to reflect the light. Beads of crystal were threaded on to wire armatures to form arms or linked together to create chains. Rock crystal was principally produced in Milan, but it was the French who used it and created exquisite crystal chandeliers. These chandeliers were admired by the English and widley copied.
By the end of the 17th century, the French were making chandeliers with local glass. The general effect was the same, but the cost was much lower. The word for glass in French is "cristal" which is confusing, but it is not difficult to differentiate between glass, which is clear, and rock crystal, which is cloudy and much more expensive.
Chandeliers were hung low so that the candles could be lit and snuffed out. They were usually suspended from a hook by means of a stout cord that could be decorative. There is no indication that chains were used, so the vogue for covering the chain with an elaborate sleeve of silk or velvet came later in the 18th century. At the same time bows of silk or velvet were sometimes used to disguise the hooks and rings at the top of the chandelier.
We who have grown up with the steady and efficient light of the electric bulb find it hard to understand the difficulties of living and working with candlelight, then oil and gaslight. But we can imagine, because we sometimes return to it, the romantic glow of candlelight. The flickering light makes our decor come alive--mirrors sparkle, gilt glitters, leather glows and brass shines.
There are several antiques shops that carry fine chandeliers in New York. I have found beautiful Dutch brass fixtures at Garvin Mecking on East 11th Street, at Midtown Antiques and Hyde Park Antiques on lower Broadway. Ann Morris on East 60th Street is a marvelous resource for all kinds of beautiful old fixtures--brass, crystal, iron and steel. I discovered a most unusual 18th-century wood and crystal chandelier at Geoffrey Goodman on Broadway. The fixture in the photograph, and other choice examples, can be seen at Hamilton-Hyre on Bleeker Street.
PHOTO : A decorative six light chandelier made in America at the turn of the century combines
PHOTO : crystal and blue bristol in an unusual design.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright Clearance Center
Of all the facets of Oriental art, including calligraphy and painting, Chinese procelain is the one that strikes a universal chord. The potter's art has forged the strongest link between the culture of China and that of the rest of the world, a remarkable achievement for an art that started as a craft. The origins of Chinese pottery-making are steeped in legend. Shards of tomb vases and house-hold implements dating to prehistoric times, 3000-2500 BC, have been discovered in recent excavations. Some of these neolithic fragments were plain, others were adorned with fine painted designs. Bits and pieces also prove that, in addition to painted and unpainted pottery, the prehistoric in Chinese made glazed earthenware -- indicating that this form of creative endeavor is a thousand years older than had previously been thought.
From these ancient times to the present, the art and techniques of fine porcelain making have evolved through many periods and dynasties. Here are some of the most important.
The Han Dynasty (206 Bc-220 AD)
During this period of external expansion and internal progress, advances were made in all fields of art. The glazing of pottery became a common practice. Earthenware was usually red or slate gray, and it was decorated with an enamel of a grayish yellow color made of lead stained with copper oxide. On the red clay this produced a green color, which varied in intensity according to the thickness of the glaze. The custom of marking earthenware vases dates back to this dynasty. The mark was engraved on the base, but marked pieces from this era are rare.
The T'ang Dynasty (618-907)
After 300 years of chaos, the T'ang Dynasty brought an era of peace and prosperity. Much of the earthenware of this period was still made for burial purposes, but great advances in technique were apparent. Potters used polychrome painted enamel decoration, producing pieces with clearly defined patterns in color. This was done by cutting channels in the clay which kept the colored glazes from running into each other. The typical T'ang pottery was of a whittish, grayish or pinkish clay, of a consistency varying from soft earthenware to stoneware, and covered with thin lead glaze, often in a single color -- green, yellow or blue. There was also irregular splashing and flecking of colored glazes -- green, amber and blue on a yellowish background.
The Sung Dynasty (960-1279)
The art of this time communicates a felling of serenity and harmony, even though the country was insecure politically and economically. Porcelain was, for the first time, prized for its artistic perfection rather than solely for its utility. Celadon ware was the most popular porcelain; it was valued for the color of its glaze -- a subtle olive, sea or celery green. The finest pieces made for Chinese use were intended to suggest jade. Other colors were experimented with at Chun Chou. This ware, of white or yellow clay was heavily enameled in a wide and gorgeous range of hues, shading from light blue to deep purple.
The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)
China was absorbed into the vast Mongol empire in 1280. The pottery and porcelain kilns continued to operate during this difficult period, but this production did not come up to the Sung standard. There was, however, a great deal of experimentation. The technique of painting white vessels with underglaze blue was perfected. Overglaze painting in transparent enamels was also a popular technique.
The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
By the time the Mongol dynasty was overthrown, the Chinese potters were ready for the renaissance of the porcelain industry that came into ful flower during this era. Enormous pieces were made and exuberantly decorated. Porcelain was used for furniture, for wall treatments, for roof tiles and for pagodas. In addition to the celadon, peachbloom and blanc de chine (or white ware), blue and white, turquoise, yellow, crimson, brown and black glazes were admired. Besides painting, other processes were used to decorate porcelain -- embossing, chiseling and openwork carving.
The Ch'ing Dynasty (1644-1912)
The Chinese empire again fell into the hands of alien rulers when the Manchus established the Ch'ing (Pure) dynasty in 1644. At first all was chaos, but by the end of the century there was fresh flood of creative energy in the ceramic arts. New monochromatic glazes were developed -- the most important a red, derived from copper and known as sang de boeuf. Others were deep blue, peacock green, eel-skin yellow, powder blue, mirror black with gold flecks, green-black, applegreen, iron-red, tea dust and iron dust.
The French terms famille verte and famille rose were coined to describe two groups of porcelain that were created during this period for local use as well as for export to the European market. The famille verte group, which was hard glaze porcelain, was painted on a white glazed surface in jewel-like enamels of green, eggplant, yellow, violet-blue and coral-red, with green predominant. The famille rose group, which was called soft glaze, featured a rose-pink taht derives from the use of precipitate of gold. In this porcelain, the pink, deepest crimson to palest pearl pink, replaces green as the primary color.
The peony vase pictured here is porcelain from the Tung Chih period (1862-1865). It was made in the province of Kuang Hsi where much of the Imperial porcelain was designed and made. Its graceful lines and exquisite painting would make it a valuable addition to any decor.
PHOTO: This handsome bottle-shaped vase with five-color enamel decoration can be found at China Importing Company on East 10th Street in New York.
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The Renaissance revival in design appeared in America about 1850. It was first characterized by architectural forms, usually of late 16th- or 17th-century inspiration, and decoration carved with the exuberance of the French baroque. The style reached its peak at the time of the Philadelphia Centennial of 1876.
Many of the qualities that characterize the finest furniture of the Renaissance revival at its height, during the 1870's, are visible in this illustration of a library table. Made by Allen & Brother for exhibition at the 1876 Centennial, it is massive in feeling and architectonic in form. The base is walnut that has been carved, ebonized and decorated with gilt. The carving is done by hand and it is crisp and tight; the mythical griffins are fanciful and rococo. The variegated marble top adds just the right touch of practical luxury to the ornate base.
Kimbel & Cabus were the most famous cabinetmakers of this period, and their work dominated in the decade following the Civil War. One of their most important Renaissance revival pieces, now in the permanent collection of the Brooklyn Museum, is a richly ornamented cabinet in rosewood with a striking central portion fitted with a painted ceramic plaque. Supporting this extravagant roundel are two curved lower cabinets with marquetry panels. Decorative details like columns and palmettes are incised and gilded to create a weighty and elaborate piece of furniture. Other Kimbel & Cabus pieces of this era are distinguished by their massive appearance and the extravagance of their design.
Alexander-Roux was another well-known cabinetmaker of the time. He came to this country from France, and he favored the heavily carved French style. By the early fifties, he was creating furniture for the wealthy in the rococo and Renaissance revival modes. At the New York Crystal Palace in 1853 he exhibited a rosewood rococo sofa and a heavy black walnut Renaissance revival sideboard, its base decorated with four arched panels framing pendent bunches of flowers, fruit and birds, many carved in high relief.
Other French cabinetmakers were active in the New York furniture industry at mid-century. Names like Baudoine, Rinquet LePrince, Marcotte and Dessoir were represented in the New York and Philadelphia exhibitions. Julius Dessoir showed an exquisite arcaded rosewood bookcase in the New York Crystal Palace. This etagere is notable for the restraint of its design, in contrast to the floridity of much furniture of the period. It is rococo in its curving shape, Renaissance in the tight symmetrical carvings and turnings that adorn it.
Renaissance revival was also prominent in the design of silver. Gorham made many pieces in the current rococo and Renaissance fashion. Bold naturalistic repousse patterns of flowers, leaves and vines were festooned on pitchers and tea-pots. The Renaissance fashion known as "neo grec" in furniture made its appearance in silver, in beading, Greek key borders, portrait medallions and animal heads and feet. Tiffany & Company relied on creative artisans like Gustave Herter from Germany to design silver that would appeal to the newly rich middle class.
By the late '70s, the popularity of Renaissance revival had begun to wane. For one thing, Grand Rapids took over the manufacture of furniture in this idiom, and fine hand-made pieces became more and more scarce. For another, new forms appeared and became fashionable. Eastlake furniture, named after an Englishman, Sir Charles Eastlake, became the rage in upper class homes in America. The Arts and Crafts and the Aesthetic Movement almost eclipsed the Renaissance style with its earnest espousal of rectilinear shape, honesty of construction and flat surface decoration.
Because the Renaissance revival period was so short, it is not easy to find examples of this furniture. There are prime specimens in the American collections of the Metropolitan Museum, the Brooklyn Museum and the Hudson River Museum. Renaissance revival in furniture and silver can be viewed in many of the restored mansions along the Hudson River--great houses like Olana and the Lockwood-Matthews Mansion. Not many pieces come on the market. The table in the photograph and other examples of American furniture and silver of this period can be found at a fairly new gallery. Catherine Kurland and Lori Zabar have a shop on East 71st Street in New York that is open by chance or appointment; they specialize in Renaissance revival, Eastlake, Arts and Crafts and Aesthetic Movement pieces. Their establishment is worth a visit.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright Clearance Center
The urge to adorn one's surroundings is age old. Ancient civilizations used paint to decorate their walls, their furniture and their everyday objects. The Egyptians, the Etruscans and the Romans painted their houses and their furniture with extraordinary inventiveness and a variety of colors.
In the Western world, decorative painting was limited to the furniture of the church, and was usually carried out by first-rate artists. Gradually, this practice spread to secular furniture such as trays, beds and the large storage chests called cassoni. Most of this work was executed by craftsmen and apprentices; sometimes the master would paint a special piece for a noble family.
By the 17th century, the Renaissance had created an enormous influence on decorating in Italy and France. Italian architecture dominated decoration; ceilings were painted in exaggerated perspective leading theatrically into the sky. Furniture followed this grandiose pattern, though not as expertly. The craftsmen who made the wood pieces were not too meticulous, the furniture was crude. To hide the inferior workmanship, gesso (a paste of white limestone) was applied and then carved and gilded, creating a new style.
In France, great architectural panels, moldings and cornices were painted, striped or gilded. Furniture quickly followed suit. In royal circles wood pieces were heavily carved and richly gilded. Lesser nobility had to make do with furniture that was painted white and touched with gold or simply waxed and enhanced with ormulu (gilt bronze).
England's great halls in the 17th century were lined with fine unpainted wood paneling. The craftsmanship of their wooden furniture was flawless and required no camouflage; gilt furniture was created for originality and grandeur late in the period and continued to be popular in the 18th century.
Lacquer was introduced to the Western world by Marco Polo in 1295. As trade with the Orient increased, pieces of lacquer were imported by Spain and Portugal. Early imitations were produced in Venice, but only on small boxes and chests. By the 17th century, when Europe entered into regular trade relations with China, Oriental lacquer became very fashionable. The imported lacquer ware was taken apart, then incorporated by cabinet makers into tables, chests, bookcases and armoires in the prevailing taste.
In the second half of the 18th century, a new phase of decorative painting spread through Europe. Robert Adam, the great English architect and designer, visited Rome and was inspired by the spell of antiquity. Chippendale and Sheraton used real or turned bamboo, gilded, painted and japanned to lighten the heaviness of wood surfaces. The desire for brightness in English houses, where gold was considered unsuitable, gave rise to the fashion of painting classic designs on satinwood. And the Brighton Pavilion, which was begun early in the 19th century, was enormously influential in making all kinds of realistic and fantasy painted finishes popular.
In America, cabinet makers created their own versions of painted and lacquered furniture. Using native woods, local craftsmen produced country furniture with ingenious naivete. The kind of decoration they developed was not unlike that of provincial furniture as it had flourished in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria and Germany. There, during the long winters, peasants had painted their chairs, tables and chests with colorful and artless motifs from daily life. An American designer named Peter Hunt created a market for country pieces covered with naif drawings of hearts and flowers in primary colors, and his style has been widely imitated.
It may be helpful to describe some of the techniques for painting furniture. Oriental lacquer is varnish applied to clear color, built up in many coats until a deep, satiny finish is achieved. Japanning is Western imitation of Oriental lacquer. Faux finishes are painted to look like other materials. Faux bois is one wood painted to look like another. Some faux bois looks realistic; some is pure fantasy and exists only in the artist's imagination. Bamboo is the most widely used painted wood finish. Faux marbre is wood painted to look like marble, and here again the painter may duplicate the real thing, or invent his own. Then there are all the techniques available for painting wood. There is antiquing, which involves a base color, an over-coat and a glaze. There is strie (which gives a hazy striped effect), spatter (which looks dotted) or sponged (which looks mottled). There are tortoise shell finishes in life-like browns and black, and fanciful reds and blues and greens. There are finishes that look like semi precious stones -- malachite, lapis lazuli, quartz and porphyry. There are all the ways of adding gold to painted furniture: burnishing, striping, gilding and leafing. And of course there are the myriad styles and techniques of painting pictures on furniture--baskets of flowers, ribbons and bows, stripes and swirls, figures, landscapes, even scenes from country life. There are many other styles and techniques in the creation of painted furniture, but these examples illustrate the range and variety of this fascinating category of antiques.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright Clearance Center
Interior Design When it comes to designing furniture, practicality is usually the first consideration. Chairs were invented for sitting; beds were conceived for sleeping. After the basic requirements for utility are satisfied, creativity adds art to usefulness.
Campaign furniture was born out of a very specific need. It was designed to be used by military personnel when they were in the field. It was portable and collapsible and was made for English officers stationed in the colonies during the 18th and 19th centuries. Also called colonial furniture, it included such pieces as chairs, settees, chests, desks and beds. The pieces were made in British India, and later in China, according to the British furniture styles of the day. Each officer had his own campaign chest that would hold his clothing and personal effects. When he was shipped to another post, his chest would be sent with all his belongings to his new station.
The campaign chest was usually made of mahogany, teak or rosewood, depending on the province it which it was ordered. It might have been made of camphorwood if it came from China or the Far East. It had recessed brass handles, protective brass corners and iron strap handles for carrying. There were other pieces of campaign furniture as well; sometimes an officer would store his gear in his desk, which would be handled and shipped like a chest, with identical brass hardware and iron straps. Other campaign pieces like chairs and sofas and beds had different functions. They were designed to fold up and fit into a compact package for transport.
The idea for campaign furniture originated from the camp equipment of officers in the Napoleonic and Peninsula Wars. These soldiers took an enormous number of bulky possessions--clothes and personal effects--with them from camp to camp. They would use a military chest of drawers made in two parts, the top half incorporating a secretary with a fall front. This was a purely functional, undecorated piece with simple folding handles inset in the fronts of the drawers. Brass strips protected the corners and simple turned feet unscrewed for traveling. This style was adapted by the British Colonials in India.
American camping furniture, designed not for elite but for common use, was more compact and practical. An 1864 patented combination camp chest contained a canvas-covered folding frame that served as a char or a bed; leaves could be attached to create a table. Also there was a cooking stove, utensils and a drawer for papers and linen.
A famours American example is the field bed of George Washington in the Revolutionary War. This was a portable bed with a light framework and legs that folded up into the frame. This kind of bed evolved into the elaborate Sheraton bed with the arched tester and framework concealed by curtains and draperies.
Campaign chests and other pieces are enjoying a new vogue. With the popularity of the English country style's emphasis on practicality and spare beauty, it is not surprising that campaign furniture is in demand. Ann Morris, whose small but handsome chest is pictured here, is a good New York resource for all kinds of campaign furniture. Kentshire Galleries has imported many fine examples of the genre, and Garvin Mecking occasionally comes across an unusual piece. Both are in New york. Hyde Park Antiques is another New York source where you might find a first-rate campaign chest. Finding one takes enthusiasm and zeal--this kind of furniture is scarce and highly prized, so when a piece appears on the market, it is quickly sold.
I have used campaign chests in many ways--as night stands in a bedroom for extra storage, as end tables in an informal study. A campaign desk is ideal for a busy executive or a teen-ager with many hobbies. I have never had the good fortune to buy a campaign sofa (although I have seen afew with sold tickets), but I can picture one in a Southampton cottage. This furniture, created to be useful in one era, has survived because of its beauty and fine workmanship to be used and admired again.
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Chinese wedding boxes are the hope chests of the East, with one major difference. While the custom of buying and storing clothing and household goods for use after marriage has been around for two or even three hundred years in the West, in China the practice goes back one thousand years.
In ancient China, the wedding boxes were a sign of conspicuous consumption. The more boxes the family contributed to the marriage, the wealthier they were thought to be, and the higher on the social scale. Before the wedding ceremony, the boxes were paraded through the streets of the town or city. This event was a matter of great interest to the townspeople; they would gather to observe, to gossip and to speculate about the size and the quality of the dowry contained in the boxes.
The boxes varied in size from a few inches to the dimensions of large traveling trunks, and they were made by communal effort. First a local carpenter would make a simple box and lid of pine, balsam or some other soft wood. Another craftsman would cover it with pigskin, stitching the leather through the wood. One skin was used for the top of the lid and the back of the box to attach the lid and create a simple hinge. Then an artist would paint the leather-covered box with a wedding scene, a landscape or a pattern of branches, flowers and birds. Finally, with the addition of brass handles and a decorative round lock and key, the box was complete.
Before the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) wedding boxes were simpler. The wood box was painted and covered with lacquer; the only ornaments were the brass closure and handles. During the Yuan Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) that followed, the leather-covered boxes proliferated. The pigskin was painted vermilion, reddish brown, dark brown, black or white. In later years, the designs on the boxes became increasingly ornate, but many of the examples with less decoration remain exceptionally beautiful.
Betty Ecke's pamphlet on Chinese Folk Art, which accompanied an exhibit several years ago at the China Institute, included some charming examples of wedding boxes. Her designation of the boxes as folk art is illuminating. One reason is their utility--they were invariably created for a specific purpose. Another consideration is the fact that they were made by the joint efforts of several local artisans rather than one artist with a singular vision.
It is interesting to speculate on how these beautiful and useful boxes came to this country. Missionaries to China probably brought them back as souvenirs. Chinese immigrants undoubtedly used the boxes to pack their belongings for their trip to the new world. Clipper ships that sailed the Eastern routes and traded with the Orient returned with boxes and trunks filled with textiles and spices.
Chinese wedding boxes are not easy to find. In New York Vito Giallo, whose small shop on Madison Avenue is full of treasures, occasionally discovers one. The box in the photograph, which belongs to me, was hidden beneath a pile of paisleys in his shop. Garvin Mecking on East 11th Street has the best selection, although his last batch was sold as it was unpacked. Tom Ballin on Second Avenue has some from time to time. I have located most wedding boxes (and if the price is right I buy them whenever I see them) out of Manhattan. New England is a good source, not surprising in view of the fact that clipper ships sailed from Northeast harbors. I found one gorgeous box painted with peonies and butterflies in Chicago, and a small black box with white dogwood in Virginia. Once in a while I discover a fabulous large trunk at an antique show.
These boxes make wonderful accessories. I have used small ones on coffee tables to hold coasters and cocktail napkins. In my living room is a stack of wedding trunks; the largest one accommodates my collection of patchwork quilt tops, the middle one is packed with all our loose family snapshots, and the smallest one holds odds and ends of lace and embroidery. A large box can be used as a coffee table, with or without a wood frame. I usually have a glass top made to preserve the painting. When a square box turns up, I use it as an end table for an upholstered chair.
With all their variety of size and shape, color and theme, Chinese wedding boxes are infinitely useful in decorating.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright Clearance Center
The Arts and Crafts movement developed in England as a response to several strands of 19th-century thought. politically, it was a revolt against the miseries of industrialization, and the decline in quality resulting from mass production. It was also a protest against the encroachment of industrialism on the workman's way of life; a primary goal was to improve living and working conditions for the ordinary working man.
Socially, the movement was an attempt to codify the principle that a nation's art was a symptom of its moral stability. Fine craftsmanship was equated with etical vigor, and the search for an "English Art for England" led to the adoption of Gothic as the best expression of the national idiom. "Fitness for purpose was defined in relation to life among the craftsmen and not to the world of industry and commerce in general.
William Morris is generally recognized as the father of Arts and Crafts, although A. W. Pugin and John Ruskin, who preceded him, strongly influenced his thinking. All three men embraced medievalism as a style to bring art back to the people. pugin was a respected architect, and Ruskin was the most innovative and influential art critic of his time.
Morris was educated at Oxford where he met Edward Burne-Jones, an artist who became a life-long friend. On a holiday with Burne-jones, Moris decided not to enter the church, as he had planned, but to devote his life to art. He became an architect, and joined the firm of G.E. Street. Street's chief assistant was Philip Webb who later designed Morris's house and collaborated with him in setting up Morris & Company. After brief strints in architecture and painting, Morris realized his true vocation as a pattern designer. In this field his talent was prodigious, and he created wallpaper, fabrics, book decorations and designs for tapes-try weaving. In 1861 Morris formed his own decorating firm, just in time to prepare an exhibit for the International Exhibition in the following year.
Wallpapers in vibrant colors and naturalists designs were among the earliest products of the firm, along with Philip Webb's straight-line furniture and the exotic stained glass panels of Burne-Jones, Dante Rossetti and Ford Madox Brown. Fabrics in the same strong colors and flowing patterns came along in the late '60s and tapestries and rugs in the '80s. Morris's influence on all of the decorative arts of the second half of the 19th century can hardly be over-estimated.
America had had its own perfect example of the Arts and Crafts ideal in the Shaker communities in New York State at the end of the 18th century. These isolated enclaves preached a philosophy of equality of the sexes, spiritual purity and honest craftsmanship. In 1852 a chair factory was founded to make furniture for outside sale; its principles were based on the ideals of "regularity is beauty" and "beauty rests on utility." The most important proselytizer of Arts and crafts ideals in america was Gustav Strickley. Strickley had been trained in Syracuse, New York. as a stonemason and furniture-maker; after a trip to Europe, where he met several members of Morris & Co., he returned home to establish his own workshops. He also began to publish a magazine called The Craftsman, the first issue of which was a celegration of the artistic as well as the social and aims of William Morris and his colleagues.
The chair pictured here is an unusual example of the creativity of another Arts and Crafts designer, Charles Francis Annesley Voysey. Voysey studied architecture at Dulwich College. In 1882 he opened his own office, but concentrated first on decorative work rather than architecture, selling his first patterns for fabrics and wallpaper. In 1884 he joined the Art Workers' Guild and soon after he designed his first house, for which he created most of the furniture, the decoration and the fittings. His characteristic style -- simple, linear and with almost no surface embellishment -- was to be widely copied.
The prototype of this chair, which was made in 1902, was the only piece of upholstered furniture Voysey ever designed. Antiques dealer David Allan, who bought the chair in London because he fell in love with it, and then discovered that it was a Voysey, describes it as almost decadent in its luxury. It is more formal and lavish than the simple, austere, unpretentious furniture Voysey became known for. "But," he adds with a smile, "it's a wonderful piece of furniture, created by a splendid craftsman at his hight of power."
PHOTO: An extraordinary piece of Arts and Crafts furniture designed by C. F.A. Voysey and exhibited by David Allan antiques at 812 Broadway, New York. COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright Clearance Center .
