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March 1989
Interior Design
The great age of papier mache is English of the Georgian and Victorian
periods, but the origins of this unusual craft are a thousand years old.
One early Chinese use of papier mache was as a material for war helmets,
which were then toughened with lacquer Another example was the recent
discovery of some red lacquered pot lids attributed to the Han Dynasty
circa 206 a.d.
The term papier mache, which is composed of French words, appears not to
be of French origin. The phrase was probably used by the French emigre
workers in the London papier-mache shops of the eighteenth century At
that time, the pulp was descriptively and colorfully referred to in
English as chewed paper. The French words for the verb to chew is
matcher, and, of course, papier is paper
The paper industry did not flourish in England until the end of the
seventeenth century The manufacture of papier mache began shortly
afterwards, early in the eighteenth century, as paper products began to
be used more widely. Paper pulp consisted of mashed paper mixed with a
binder of glue and gum arabic. Sometimes flour, sawdust or plaster was
added, depending on the purpose for which the pulp was to be used. This
prepared pulp was molded into articles like inkstands, card trays, bread
baskets and other small items. The hand-turned molds were made of wood
with a hole in the center through which the excess water and paste
drained away. Some molds had intaglio designs cut into them for
obtaining raised figures on the surface of the object. As more
sophisticated techniques of pressing, molding and shaping were
developed, more intricate and complex products appeared.
One of the most innovative uses for papier mache was for wall and
ceiling moldings. In 1778 a Frenchman, in admiration of this English
style and its practicality, wrote: "The English cast in cardboard the
ceiling ornaments that we make in plaster They are more durable, break
off with difficulty, or if they do break off, the danger is of no
account and the repair less expensive"
At Horace Walpole's Strawberry Hill, a bedroom ceiling had star and
quatrefoil compartments with roses at the intersections, all made of
papier mache. In Alscot Park in Warwickshire, a fireplace was ornamented
with flower festoons in burnished gold. Even the House of Lords, when it
was rebuilt after the fire of 1834, had ceiling cornices and wall
moldings of papier mache.
Most of the papier mache, however, was used for furniture and
accessories, and these were ornamented with lacquer, gold, paint in
various colors and mother-of-pearl. Chairs and tables, small in size but
sturdily constructed, were popular The sewing table in the accompanying
photograph is a fine example. Dated 1850, it is stenciled in gold with
inlaid mother-of-pearl and chinoiserie painting. Elaborate bedroom
suites were created and decorated with colorful floral panels and gilt
edging. Trays were made in all sizes and shapes, and their decoration
ran the gamut. Also in demand were small chests, tea caddies, albums and
lap desks. Freestanding screens and wall panels were practical adjuncts
to the earlier ceiling and wall moldings. Most of them were decorated in
the Chinese style. Oriental figures and landscapes were drawn with metal
leaf, paint or imitation tortoise shell. Then the faces and hands were
made of a mixture of whiting and varnish that was laid onto the drawn
figures and molded with small sticks or modeling tools. When dry they
were painted pink or white, and the features were drawn in. This made
for an interesting three-dimensional quality
The Italians probably learned to make papier mache from the Orient via
the Venetian trade, and from there the art spread to Persia and India.
There were excellent craftsmen in Germany who produced tobacco and snuff
boxes as well as molded toys and doll heads. In Russia, lacquering on
papier mache was first done by peasant craftsmen who created a
distinctive kind of folk art. And in America, where English style has
always been valued, papier mache has been sought after since Washington
used it in his Mount Vernon home.
The popularity of papier mache in furniture and accessories, is not
surprising. It is highly decorative and fits perfectly into the English
country style so many designers favor. I have used a papier mache a
small chest as an end table and a tray made into a coffee table. It
furnished just the right touch of whimsey to a formal sitting room with
colorful floral panels and gilt edging.
There are several places in New York to find papier mache, One good
source is Kentshire Galleries on East 12th Street, where we found the
illustrated sewing table. Another is Garvin Mecking, around the corner
on 11 th Street. I have bought small but choice pieces of papier mache(I
remember best a perpetual calendar) from Vito Giallo on Madison Avenue.
And for exquisite papier mache mantel and wall clocks, try Fanelli's
Antique Timepieces on Madison Avenue.
April 1989
Interior Design
The use of ornamental borders to surround and enhance a picture dates
back to antiquity The earliest frames were really suggestions of edges-a
bas-relief, mosaic or fresco outlined with a margin of the same material
in a contrasting color or an ornamental figure in a linear design. Walls
and ceilings were natural frames for most paintings, just as niches for
sculpture were part of architectural plans.
The need for frames did not arise until painting evolved as a portable
art in the Middle Ages. These early works were made of wood, and the
first frames were probably necessary to reinforce the wooden panels and
keep them from warping. The borders for these pictures were made by the
artist, who considered the frame an extension of the painting itself.
The arched and vaulted outer edges of the frames reflected the Gothic
architecture for which they were created, and the rich ornate gold
decoration was full of religious symbolism that underlined the
ecclesiastical paintings.
As the demand for portable paintings increased, painters confined
themselves to painting, and the need for fine frames launched a new
craft. Artisans evolved into artists, and picture frames grew more
significant. Frames played an increasingly important role as reflections
of architectural style and interior decoration. By the 15th century
subjects for paintings began to move away from the purely devout. Frames
became less elaborate and more specific to the nature of the painting.
The Renaissance brought to frames, as it did to many other art forms, a
new dimension of excitement and creativity. Italian Renaissanceframes,
often works of art in their own right, mirrored the exuberance of the
architecture, with elaborately carved and gilded columns, pilasters and
pediments. The richness of the frames reinforced and heightened the
glowing images of the paintings inside them.
Italian Renaissance frame makers influenced French artists and craftsmen
of the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period the courts of France
were bursting with artistic creativity. Rich, dramatic frames were
designed to complement the larger-than-life subjects of baroque
paintings and enhance the opulent interiors of royal and noble homes.
In England, frame making reached its zenith in the late 17th and 18th
centuries. Leading furniture makers such as Thomas Chippendale and
William Kent included ideas for frames in their pattern books, and their
styles displayed the refinements of their furniture designs. Grinling
Gibbons, whose exquisite carvings of birds, fruits, flowers and
streamers were unrivaled, brought an unsurpassed elegance to the art of
the frame.
The Adam brothers also designed frames as well as furniture and an
chitecture during this period, and Robert Adam incorporated frames into
the interior design of the stately homes he planned. He went one step
further by designing frames for specific pieces of furniture.
Although foreign styles influenced the evolution of frames in America,
early domestic designs were very simple. Typical colonial shapes were
plain or crossover moldings, crudely carved and nailed. Sometimes the
frames were painted with flowers or false wood graining. As the country
developed, its fashion and furniture demonstrated a simpler style, less
elaborate than European design.
The frames in the photograph illustrate a wide variety of styles and
mate rials. On the left is a German Black Forest frame, a fantasy of
twigs, vines, leaves and flowers in carved walnut. To the right is an
Anglo-Indian frame of pecanwood inlaid with ivory and ebony The two
frames in the middle are French; the small oval is made of Boulle
(marquetry in tortoiseshell and brass) and the miniature is framed in
basse taille enamel. The frames at the bottom are both English. To the
left is a very popular Victorian style, a bird's-eye maple frame with an
inner rim of gilt. To the right is a frame of wood with gesso (a chalky
substance mixed with sizing and applied in layers before gilding or
painting) inner and outer borders. This style is traditionally used for
portraits.
The two frames at the top were found at Vito Giallo on Madison Avenue,
the Boulle frame was a gift and the others were unearthed in flea markets.
H. Heydenryk, on East 76th Street, has an astonishing collection of antique
frames in an endless variety of size, period and country of origin. The APF
Gallery, a frame maker of reproduction frames, does expert work in the
restoration of antiques.
May 1989
Interior Design
Majolica is the generic term for a broad category of tinglazed
earthenware which has been produced over several centuries in many
countries under various labels. In Holland it is called delft, in France
faience and in Italy maiolica. In England it has been produced by
Whieldon, Wedgwood and Minton, among others. American factories like
Milford and Griffen, Smith and Hill continued the manufacture of this
popular ware.
Majolica was first created in Italy in the 15th century In Urbino, a
local artisan discovered a new technique for making a beautiful white
lustrous glaze for pottery It was immediately fashionable, taken up as a
specially of many royal Italian families and used by artists and
sculptors of the Renaissance for portrait busts and plaques, and even
for serving dishes. On the white opaque surface were laid the five
master colors of the Italian painters: blue, green, yellow, purple and
orange plus a brilliant ruby accent. This unusual and beautiful
earthenware was produced until the middle of the 16th century when, for
a variety of reasons, artists turned to other forms. Examples of
magnificent Renaissance majolica may still be seen in major European
museums like the Bargello in Florence.
The next chapter in the history of majolica takes place in France. Just
as the art was waning in Italy a French potter named Bernard Pallissey,
working independently, discovered the secret of the white glaze which
must cover the earthen body so that the subsequent color glazes can
attain their fullest lustre. His period of creativity in the middle of
the 16th century, set a standard that has never been surpassed,
Pallissey and his many followers in France and Germany strove for exotic
effects in the molding of shapes as well as colors that were strong and
vibrant. The influence of Pallissey on subsequent pottery design is most
pronounced in the themes he drew from nature. He portrayed fish and
snakes, shells and plants, flowers and leaves, and these motifs are
still dominant in the decoration of majolica.
By the 18th century faience was popular all over Europe. The delft of
Holland was characterized by the unusual bluish white character of the
glaze. Its decoration and coloring, however were influenced more by
Chinese motifs and by the glory of 17th century Dutch landscape painting
than by the French or Italian designs. The main contribution that delft
made to later majolica style was the more delicate texture of its pottery
In England in 1754 Thomas Whieldon, a distinguished potter who had
already developed a colored highgloss product called agate ware, top
toiseshell or simply Whieldon ware, formed a partnership with Josiah
Wedgwood that was to last for five years. During that period the firm
turned out tortoiseshell dishes, cauliflower jugs and teapots with
crab-stock handles. Wedgwood experimented with many techniques until he
was able to produce that fine green glaze that has become the
distinguishing colon almost the hallmark of old majolica.
Although majolica continued to be popular until the end of the 18th
century the Europeans turned their attention to fine porcelain, and it
was not until the middle of the 19th century and the Victorian Era that
majolica resurfaced. Herbert Minton is credited with a revival of
interest with his display of majolica at the Great Exhibition of 1851.
The new version was very different from the white pottery with the
distinctive Moorish patterns of Renaissance Italian majolica. It was
strongly sculpted and boldly colored with translucent glazes to enhance
the natural forms. The compote pictured here is a perfect example of
Minton majolica-intricate in design, whimsical in subject and sparkling
in color
One of the most creative makers of majolica was George Jones, a potter
from Stoke-Upon-Trent. His pieces, signed GJ, included candelabra,
two-lidded vases and elaborate tureens, and are in great demand by
designers and collectors.
In the 1840s two brothers, Edwin and William Bennett, came to America
from the Wedgwood factory and set up a pottery in Baltimore-the first
one in this country to make majolica. It was so popular that factories
were established in the states of Ohio and New Jersey in Milford,
Connecticut, and the biggest one in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, under
the aegis of Griffen, Smith and Hill. The American factories made the
kind of majolica that was so successful in England, and it is sometimes
difficult to tell the difference between the U.S.- and British-made pottery
The vogue for the English country look has sparked a new popularity for
majolica. The distinctive green glaze with accents of turquoise, pink
and yellow complement the flowery chintzes and sunny backgrounds of the
British style. Designers are always looking for the right accessory, and
majolica often fills the bill.
The Minton serving dish in the photograph was found at KM Antiques of
London in New York's D&D building. This shop carries an assortment of
quality majolica, including rare signed works by George Jones. Another
source of fine majolica is the James II gallery on 57th Street.
July 1989
Interior Design
The history of art has always reflected the life of man in his
environment. Since man has traditionally shared his world with animals,
it is not surprising that paintings of animals, alone or with human
companions, exist. in the last two hundred years, however, this genre
has become so popular that Sotheby's and Christie's have established
separate departments for the sale of animal paintings. Called Sporting
pictures, the category includes subjects like hunting, racing, shooting,
wild and farm animals, horses and dogs.
In the 18th century in France, there were artists like Desportes and
Oudry who painted with exquisite care the privileged dogs who
accompanied the king and his court on the royal hunt. These
animals-dachshunds, spaniels, greyhounds, pointers-were important enough
to be given individual names, classical or colloquial, and to merit
portraits singly or in elegantly arranged groups. A famous painter of
exotic animals, Jean-Jacques Bachelier was best known for his depiction
of the Rococo dog, a precious poodle that looks more like a wind-up toy
than a living creature.
At the same time that Bachelier was memorializing the pets of the French
court, the century's greatest animal painter was working in England.
George Stubbs (1724-1806) wrote and illustrated papers on zoology and
comparative anatomy. He observed and painted, with scientific precision,
a wide range of animals from exotic cheetahs from India to the most
familiar of those domestic creatures the British have assimilated into
their human society, horses and dogs. Stubbs' animal portraits are
remarkable in their fusion of physical and psychological reality. His
White Poodle in a Punt presents a real rebuttal to the Rococo poodle by
emphasizing the truth, instinct and nature of the subject. His vision
encompassed the outer appearance of the dog, seen in a man-made context,
but somehow managed to intuit its inner, emotional life as well, with a
realism and clarity that has rarely been equalled.
Animal paintings by Stubbs are still highly prized by collectors, but
there were other 18th-century English artists who created memorable
portraits of horses and dogs. Thomas Gainsborough, famous for his
paintings of British aristocracy, chose as the subject of his first
signed picture a bull terrier named Bumper, painted alone and alert in
the woods. The distinguished British architect, Sir John Soane, was
inspired by a visit to some Roman ruins to create a pair of
architectural drawings for a "Canine Residence." One was restrained and
practical, and the second was a reflection of French architectural
fantasy, including a central dome, fountains, columns and a pair of
sculptured dogs guarding the entrance.
The great explosion of creativity in animal portraits took place in the
Victorian era. Queen Victoria, who reigned for more than 60 years, had
tremendous influence on the arts and culture of her nation. She espoused
all the traditional values-home and hearth, children, flowers, horses
and dogs. She and her husband, Prince Albert, had a large family and
numerous pets, and she commissioned many portraits by Edwin Landseer,
whom she later knighted. He became her official court painter and one of
the most influential artists of domestic subjects in the 19th century.
Landseer painted the royal couple, their children and many of their
animals, from macaws, lovebirds and marmosets to greyhounds,
Newfoundlands, terriers and spaniels. in his later works, dogs were
delineated in various guises, reflecting the occupations and sometimes
the social status of their masters.
Landseer's name was to become synonymous with the Victorian sensibility
toward animals, but there were other artists producing work with similar
motifs. The current revival of interest in the style of English country
homes helps to explain the enormous popularity of this genre today.
interior designers like Mario Buatta, who is also an avid collector, are
combing the art and antiques market in London and New York for animal
paintings to enhance the walls of their elegant, chintz-filled drawing
rooms.
The illustrated portrait of a Jack Russell terrier by a Victorian
English artist named John Alfred Wheeler comes from a good selection of
quality period paintings by Karen Warshaw who exhibits on East 74th
Street in New York. Another source is Bellechase, a shop in the Place
Des Antiquaires on East 57th Street that deals exclusively with animal
subjects. The auction houses publish their schedule of sales that
include annual or semi-annual auctions of sporting pictures.
August 1989
Interior Design
The life of Thomas Sheraton presents us with a curious paradox. Here was
a man who earned his living as a cabinetmaker, went on to teach drawing
and architecture, and ultimately designed some of the most exquisite
furniture of the late 18th and early 19th century Yet, not one piece of
furniture which can be directly attributed to him has ever been discovered.
Biographical facts are sketchy He was born in 1751 in Stockton-onTees,
England, and he traveled from one small town to another working as a
carpenter to support himself. In 1790 he moved to London, set up shop in
Wardour Street, Soho, where he became a freelance teacher and designer.
His first style book, called The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing
Book, was published in four parts between 1791 and 1794. After several
editions, and a Cabinet Dictionary, his final book, the Cabinet Maker,
Upholsterer, and General Artist's Encyclopedia, appeared in 1805. One
year later he was dead.
Sheraton's designs found instant favor among the upper classes. His
early style was characterized by an absence of curved lines and an
emphasis on crisp and clear details. Grace and refinement were the
hallmarks of his work, and they were present in his writing tables for
ladies, his dressing tables, work tables, card tables, dining tables and
chairs, secretaries and etageres.
England had reached the zenith of national furniture style during the
last third of the 18th century with the ascendance of Robert Adam and
his brother The Adams, who replaced the rococo of Chippendale with the
austere elegance of classical lines, organized the kind of atelier that
would permit them to undertake not only the architectural design but
also the complete furnishing and decorating of houses. The two
cabinetmakble with the Adams' style were George Hepplewhite and Thomas
Sheraton.
Although there were similarities between their work, each man made
distinctive contributions to the art of furniture design. Heppiewhite,
who flourished between 1775 and 1786, followed the Chippendale aesthetic
with curved lines, intricate carving and a strong preference for
mahogany Sheraton's dominance, from 1790 to 1805, was more significant.
The essentials of his style were straight lines rather than curved ones,
a notable lightness and delicacy of form and ornament and a preference
for unusual woods, mainly satinwood.
His sketches were strongly influenced by the contemporary French
neo-classicism of the Louis XVI period. In France Sheraton furniture was
called Louis Seize a L'Anglaise. His later designs owed much to the
prevailing Empire mode in France but this phase was not as popular or
influential as his earlier work. His creativity led him to experiment
with new forms. He used exotic woods like zebra, beech and tulipwood for
inlays, banding and stringing. Some wood pieces were painted and others
were adorned with painted bouquets of flowers, acanthus leaves, urns,
feathers, ribbons or swags. These painted decorations supplemented the
delicate marquetry for which he was famous. Another innovation credited
to Sheraton was the use of porcelain inserts in his wood pieces.
Wedgwood plaques became as popular in England as Sevres medallions had
been in France. Sideboards were relatively new in Sheraton's day and he
designed many elegant versions, some with brass galleries at the back to
hold plates. His beds, in the French tradition, were elaborate and
fanciful, often with intricate canopies.
Like many of the chairs Sheraton designed, the mahogany library chair in
the photograph has straight lines and a square back. The arms are shaped
and tapered. He also sketched some upholstered easy chairs, high-backed
with wings or low-backed with rounded curves. His settees were airy and
delicate, strongly influenced by Heppiewhite styles.
Desks, which were introduced in mid-century, were conceived with drawers
or cupboards on either side of the kneehole. Sheraton drew many
variations of these and other pieces of combined furniture like bu
reau-bookcases. Bow front commodes, serpentine chests, kidney shaped,
Pembroke and other tables-Sheraton designed them all, and did it with
beauty and distinction.
Many fine examples of Sheraton furniture can be found today. Agostino on
lower Broadway in New York has the illustrated chair and a good
selection of pieces from this period. Down the block at Hyde Park are
many specimens of Sheraton's art. Around the corner on East 12th Street,
Kentshire Galleries is another establishment that continually searches
the market for authentic and useful Sheraton furniture. Happy hunting!
September 1989
Interior Design
From the tiniest jeweler's beamscale to the oversized contraption
devised to weigh farm animals, scales have been created to serve
specific purposes. The function has dictated the design, and from the
beginning scales were strictly utilitarian. And since the objects to be
measured were so diverse in size and shape, many varieties of scales
were invented.
The most common type of scale is a balance--an instrument consisting of
a centrally pivoted beam with two containers of equal weight on either
end. This kind of scale has been used since classical times, and is
traditionally made of brass with a wood base. The balancing mechanism is
held across the central post, and suspended from it, on chain or wire,
are two flat or rounded platforms. Material to be weighed is placed in
one container while the other holds graduated weights. Balance scales
have been used to weigh a wide gamut of objects from pills to powders
and gold and silver, gemstones to food. As the uses of these scales
became more widespread, their designs grew more sophisticated. New
materials were substituted for the traditional ones; copper or silver
for the central mechanism, glass, pottery or even stone for the
containers. At the same time, modifications in the structure of the
scales were created for aesthetic reasons rather than utilitarian ones.
The variety of elaborate designs and imaginative materials coupled with
a universal fascination with the concepts of movement and balance made
these scales interesting to collectors.
Another kind of scale, based on the same principle, became popular in
England after the Uniform Postal Act of 1840. These scales, which were
constructed to weigh letters and packages, combined the balancing
pendulum with split stays, called Roberval designs. The base of the
letter scale was traditionally small and rectangular, the central
mechanism wide and short, and the two weighing platforms rested on the
horizontal balancing arm. Often the weights were set into the base.
These postal scales became very popular during the Victorian era. The
bases, which were first made in a pear or box wood in simple straight
lines, became more ornate; they were fluted or scalloped in exotic
striped or burled woods. Later scales appeared in brass, silver and even
gold plate. Sometimes the base was fashioned in marble or semi-precious
stone like malachite, lapis or agate with matching platforms. Elaborate
bases in papier-mache with painted flowers and inlaid mother-of-pearl
were created; the French influence was observed in bases made of boulle
(tortoise shell and brass), shagreen (sharkskin) or fine porcelain like
Sevres or Limoges. Letter scales were included in ornate Victorian desk
sets along with inkstands, blotters, letter racks, stamp boxes and book
ends.
A fine example of a collectible English scale is one was made by Parkins
and Gotto in London in the 19th century. The mechanism is not the usual
split-stay design, but an exceptional single platform type in brass and
wood, found in a shop called Mantiques on the second level of the
Manhattan Antiques Center. Organized around the principle of gender
preference, the proprietor of this establishment has a fascinating stock of
scales and balances as well as other measuring instruments.
As a scale collector myself, I am always drawn to the possibilities of
antique scales as accessories in residential design. On a desk, in a
bookcase, on a library table or a kitchen counter, an appropriate and
beautiful scale can add the perfect touch.
Elegant old scales are not easy to find. With the exception of
Mantiques, which always has a selection, no one shop in New York
specializes. From time to time, I have found an unusual old balance
scale at Ann Morris on 60th Street. In Agostino on lower Broadway, a
client and I discovered a gold plated letter scale with a fluted base
and Florentine marble plaques set into the platforms. Kentshire around
the corner has a plethora of small antiques in its third floor
Collectors Gallery. Occasionally an elegant English postal scale turns
up. Recently I spotted a complete desk set, including a scale, in a
striated calamander wood overlaid with engraved and gilded brass mounts.
As I stopped to admire it, another designer purchased it for a lucky
client.
PHOTO : A unique single platform mid-19th century English postal scale
in polished brass with a scalloped base in burled wood.
October 1989
Interior Design
The history of mirror is rooted in myth and legend. It begins with the
story of Narcissus, a beautiful youth in Greco-Roman mythology, who sat
by the edge of a lake, saw his reflection in the still water and fell in
love with this own image.
Water was the original reflecting mirror. It was a puzzling one to the
first people who chanced upon it for several reasons. The objects that
were reproduced were reversed; also, when the surface of the water was
disturbed the picture shimmered, fractured and then disappeared. From
these early times, however, the concepts of self-discovery,
self-knowledge and self-absorption have kept artisans involved in the
creation of useful and decorative mirrors.
Ancient people experimented with the principles of reflection so that
they could see themselves in relation to the world around them. At first
they made mirrors from highly polished stones. Later, metals like gold
and silver were burnished to a shiny gloss. Hand mirrors survive from
Egyptian and Etruscan tombs. They were usually small and round and
decorated with semi-precious stones. The handles were ornate and
exquisitely carved, sometimes with figures of beautiful women.
By the middle ages, polished mirrors were in common use in Europe and
the East. In medieval England they were made with loops for hanging on
gold chains around a woman's neck or on her gown. In France, elaborately
carved ivory mirror cases were admired. In India, tiny reflecting
mirrors were sewn on clothing to ward off evil spirits.
The earliest glass mirros were made in Venice in the middle of the 16th
century. They were fashioned of the local Venetian glass backed with an
amalgam of mercury and tin. Refined and polished wall mirrors and
standing mirrors as well as portable ones became more and more popular
in Europe, England and America during the 17th century.
The framing of mirrors during the 17th and 18th centuries took many
forms and was the subject of careful study by some of the giants of
English design. Grinling Gibbons, the master wood carver, Thomas
Chippendale, whose furniture has never bee n equalled, William Kent and
Robert Adam, the distinguished architects, all turned their hand to the
design of mirrors. At the beginning of this period, looking glasses were
quite small with proportionately large frames. Elaborately carved wood,
embroidered stumpwork (needlework with sections of ornament raised over
padding), beadwork, tortoiseshell and even chased silver were used to
surround the comparatively insignificant pieces of glass. Gilding,
usually applied to carved gesso, came into vogue and was
enthusiastically employed by the most skilled craftsmen of the era.
As it became possible to manufacture glass in sheets of larger size, it
became apparent that not only the frame but also the mirror within it
had decorative possibilities. The Galerie des Glaces at Versailles,
built by Le Brun for Louis XIV in 1682, was a milestone in the history
of mirror, a glittering salon of reflecting glass and gilt. Its fame
inspired the use of ornamental mirror in the great houses of England.
These mirrors were created for the decoration of the rooms in which they
were placed, and not primarily for personal admiration as had been
commonplace.
Overmantel mirrors were the most popular variety. Sometimes an oil
painting of a landscape or flowers was incorporated into the frame--this
was called a trumeau. Pier glasses were tall mirros with ornate frames
that were set on the narrow walls between windows. Cheval mirrors were
long looking-glasses suspended between two columns resting on
trestle-like feet; the name comes from the pulley mechanism which is
used to adjust the angle of the mirror. Dressing or toilet mirrors were
smaller versions that were used on tables or chests. both cheval and
dressing mirrors traditionally were found in bedrooms or dressing areas.
Fine antique mirrors abound in New York. The one in the photograph (above) was
found in the James II Galleries on 57th Street. It is a Victorian mirror
with an elaborate wood frame; the carving is in the style of Grinling
Gibbons. Hype Park Antiques on lower Broadway deals in authentic period
mirrors with gilt and wood frames. David Allan, down the street,
specializes in mirrors in unusual sizes and shapes. He fancies large
pier glasses and mirrors with Anglo-Indian, rare wood or lacquered
frames. Kentshire Galleries on 12th Street has a good selection of
decorative mirrors in the English style. For simple French looking
glasses try Martell Antiques on 10th Street; for ornate French frames
Howard Kaplan on Broadways is the place.
November 1989
Interior Design
During the last three centuries, the term "Tunbridge Ware" has been used
to describe several kinds of small wooden objects made by British
craftsmen in an area of Kent called Tonbridge. More recently it has
become synonymous with a specific type of woodenware adorned with a
characteristic decoration of colored wood mosaic developed in the 1820s.
The production of these pieces centered in a town called Tunbridge Wells
which had a history as a vacation resort, and the ornamental boxes and
bowls, games, picture frames and urns became popular as souvenirs of a
holiday stay.
The discovery of the chalybeate health-giving water in 1606 at Tunbridge
Wells, and the ensuing development of the town as a fashionable spa,
created a small cottage industry of local artisans turning out novel
items for the visiting gentry. Abundant forests and a rich variety of
decorative woods had always encouraged cabinet making and wood working
in the area, and treen (which is the generic term for small woodenware)
was a traditional favorite.
Ironically, on the eve of the great breakthrough in technique that set
the seal on Tunbridge Ware as a distinct craft with boundless artistic
permutations, the society that had inadvertently given rise to the
growth of the industry drifted slowly away in search of more exciting
diversions at Brighton and Bath.
The invention of mosaic work is generally ascribed to James Burrows at
the beginning of the 19th century. The principle on which it is based is
the use of blocks made of sticks of wood in contrasting colors. By
cutting across the blocks at various angles, Burrows realized that he
could create a variety of patterns. To produce stickware, as it is
called, pieces of square, round, triangular or lozenge-shaped wood in 6-
or 7-in. lengths in different colors were grouped to form circular
bundles, then glued together using wet string to hold them all in place
while the animal glue dried. With larger blocks, concentric rings of
sticks were built in layers. When these blocks were turned on the lathe,
the curvilinear patterns of stickware would emerge.
This basic technique lent itself to endless permutations. Typical mosaic
patterns were rendered in woods like yew, cherry, maple, holly, satin,
beech, plum and sycamore. More exotic variations in color--white, red,
yellow, green and black--were produced without artificial dyeing. Green
wood, for example, was obtained locally from oak trees that had been
attacked by a fungus that stained the tissues a brillant emerald, and
ebony was discovered in black and rare red varieties. All in all, about
forty kinds of wood were employed.
Another familiar Tunbridge pattern was the cube. This design was
rendered in a wide range of textures and markings. The pieces of veneer
were applied individually in the manner of parquet. The cube pattern
became popular towards the end of the 18th century and continued until
Tunbridge Ware ceased to be manufactured in the 1930s.
The lap desk in the photograph is a prime example of the genre, and it
clearly illustrates several Tunbridge techniques. On the lid is a panel
of cube pattern. Below it is an intricate rendering of Herstmonceux
Castle in a combination of textured mosaic and marquetry. The
surrounding borders of flowers and leaves are created in mosaic inspired
by or adapted from Berlin woolwork patterns. These designs are drawn on
graph paper like embroidery sheets, with each square marked for the
proper wood. The inside of the desk is inlaid with geometric borders.
This writing box and many other prime examples of Tunbridge Ware can be
found at Antique Cache in the Manhattan Antiques Center on Second Avenue
in New York. Mrs. Steinberg, the doyenne, has gathered an assortment of
this unusual woodenware. Letter boxes, tea caddies, writing desks, glove
boxes, stamp boxes, book racks, inkstands, pin trays, sewing stands and
dresser sets, and all in mint condition, have been bought and sold here.
Tunbridge Ware is easily recognized and highly prized, but pieces of it
can be found. Garvin Mecking on East 11th Street, New York, has an
occasional item of Tunbridge; so does Kentshire Galleries on East 12th
Street. Vito Giallo on Madison Avenue in the 70s has a penchant for
English woodenware, and his shop is worth a visit.
September 1988
Interior Design
Beautiful accessories are the hallmark of a fine decorating job. One of
the most successful ways to complete a room with style is with the
judicious use of throw pillows. A profusion of exquisite cushions made
from a variety of antique textiles and heaped on a classic sofa
instantly sets the tone of an elegant drawing room.
Throw pillows have always been popular with designers. They soften t he
look of a room, period or modern. They also add, or should add, to the
comfort of the people who use it. But the primary purpose of pillows is
to beautify.
The pillows in the accompanying illustration are made of Aubusson,
Beauvais and chintz, antique fabrics that are rare and highly prized.
Here is a brief history of each, along with two other textiles,
needlepoint and beadwork, which are also available in pillows for
discerning collectors.
Aubusson
This name refers to the flat, or tapestry weave of French rugs as
Savonnerie relates to pile or tufted weaves. Both terms describe only
the construction, not the place of manufacture, the age of the rug or
the period of design. The low-warp weaving began in the French town of
Aubusson as early as the 13th century, and during the next two hundred
years the art of tapestry spread throughout the country. Rugs and wall
hangings were made in graceful flower patterns for all the fine chateaus
throughout France. Aubusson weaves are still being made and valued by
the French as well as the rest of the world.
Beadwork
For many centuries beads have been used to adorn clothes, to decorate
articles for the home and as currency for trading. During the Victorian
era, there was a dramatic revival of various aspects of the beadwork,
alone or in combination with needlework, that survives in firescreens,
tea cozies, pin cushions, purses and pictures. Beads were made of iron,
pearl, garnet, amber, crystal and later glass, and they were worked into
flower and animal compositions with great delicacy. Faceted beads
created pictures with even more subtle shadings and details.
Beauvais
This is the name of a city in northern France where Colbert founded the
Royal Tapestry Manufactory in the year 1664. Beauvais tapestries in silk
and wool were made during the reign of Louis XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI
and through the Second Empire. Following wartime destruction between
1939-45, the Manufactory was amalgamated with the National Gobelin
Manufactory in Paris.
Chintz
Chintz was originally the name of painted or stained calico imported
from India. Indian chintz was very popular for bed coverings and
dresses, especially in the 18th cenWry. Now chintz is the name of a
cotton cloth fast printed with designs of flowers in a number of colors
(usually five or more) and usually glazed. In many applied patchwork
quilts of the late 18th and early 19th century the pieces applied were
motifs cut from chintz.
Needlepoint
In America, this term refers to all types of embroidery on canvas. The
term is confusing because needlepoint also applies to lace made with a
needle. Needlepoint can be fine embroidery like petitpoint, large scale
like grospoint or the popular Berlin Woolwork. This is embroidery using
the soft untwisted Berlin zephy on charts where one square equals one
stitch.
Pillows made of these antique texfiles are in great demand, and they are
not difficult to find. In New York Charlotte Moss, whose cushions are
pictured here, has a wonderful selection of well-made pillows in a
variety of fabrics in her delightful shop on East 70th Street. Kentshire
Galleries on East 12th Street has an abundance of pillows in its third
floor Collectors Gallery. Garvin Mecking, around the corner on 11th
Street, has cushions in old fabrics; he also collects pieces of tapestry
and needlepoint pictures that might inspire some new and original
designs for decorators with special requirements.
There are several good sources for these pillows in the Design and
Decorabon Building at 979 Third Avenue in New York. KM Antiques of
London on the 17th floor has an interesting collection. So does
Antiquities on the 15th floor. Knowledgeable dealers are finding antique
textiles and making them available to the decorating trade.
November 1988
Interior Design
Clocks have always attracted collectors, and carriage clocks are the
most popular of all. They are small, easily transported and highly
ornamental.
The carriage clock originated in France in the 18th century. It probably
derived from the "Pendule d'Officier," the small portable timepieces
that Napoleon's officers carried with them on their extended tours of
Europe. These clocks were so attractive and convenient that they became
the rage in France, and then later in England, America and the continent,
It is not possible to attribute the invention of the carriage clock to
any one person, but shortly after 1800 Abraham-Louis Breguet, an
esteemed watchmaker in Paris, was turning out some complex, finely tuned
and superbly cased movable clocks like the one pictured here. They were
so carefully crafted and precisely engineered that they were rare and
expensive.
By the 1850s, other French horologists like Paul Garnier and Leroy were
creating clocks in this form with eight-day striking movements. Examples
appeared with repeating, alarm and even calendar functions. The
popularity of carriage clocks spread to Britain and the United States
where a wealthy class, created by the Industrial Revolution, demanded
finely finished articles that were practical as well as decorative. By
the end of the century there was a series of standard styles and a
number of specially designed pieces, made for affluent customers or to
be displayed in design exhibitions.
These portable clocks were early and elegant versions of travel clocks.
They were compact in size and included a handle and a protective leather
case. When a gentleman (or a soldier) went on a trip, he could lift the
clock by its convenient handle and take it along. Chances are he would
travel by carriage, and would hang the clock by its handle to keep track
of the time. Hence the namecarriage clock.
At first every carriage clock had a rectangular gilt case, glass panels,
a simple face, a fairly large handle and very little ornamentation. As
time passed and expertise developed, these small timepieces became works
of art from their innermost mechanisms to their sumptuous surfaces. In
size, they ranged from 2-1/2 to 3 in. (miniature) to 5 to 8 in.
(standard) and 12 to 18 in. (giant). The rarest and most valuable are
the miniatures, which are marvels of technology. Some strike on the hour
and half-hour; some strike quarter hours as well. Some rare models show
the day, date and month. And some eved contain perpetual calendars that
self-correct for leap years.
The greatest strides have been made in the style and decoration of the
cases. In addition to the simple rectangle, there are oval clocks,
hexagonal clocks and even clocks with bubble tops. Instead of the glass
panels, which allowed the works to be visible, the cases are decorated
in a myriad of ways. They are often made of gold or silver, or both; the
metal is cast, engraved, chased, filigreed, fluted or beaded. Panels are
made of ivory, porcelain, semi-precious stone like malachite, lapis
lazuli or jade, various forms of enameIing like translucent enamel,
guilloche, cloisonne or champleve or inlaid with mother of pearl,
turquoise or other jewels.
To understand the range of precision and design that have been lavished
on these small clocks, it may be helpful to peruse a new book called A
Century of Fine Carriage Clocks. Joe Fanelli, who compiled the book and,
with his wife Cindy, owns Fanelli Antique Timepieces on Madison Avenue,
New York, has the most comprehensive collection of carriage clocks in
the city, and he plans an even more extensive display for the holidays.
Sometimes an intricate version turns up in an antique jewelry shop or at
an auction; occasionally I see one at Kentshire or Hyde Park or David
Allan downtown or in one of the antique establishments in the D&D
Building. If I need one for a specific function, I start with the Fanellis.
The carriage clock in the photograph is a rare example of the art of A.
L. Breguet. The case is Empire in style, made of bronze dore with fluted
pilasters,glass insets and enamel dial with day-of-month and moon phase.
It runs eight days, strikes the hour and the quarter hour (grande and
petite sonnerie), has an alarm function, a repeat button and a perpetual
calendar. The clock has been designed so that it can be wound through
the back door without opening it. It is a marvel of engineering and
classic beauty.
May 1988 Interior Design The word chandelier, like so many terms in the field of design, comes
from the French. Originally a chandelier was a candle holder. Candles
were made of tallow, and they were used in candlesticks on a table or
chest, in sconces attached to a wall or hanging overhead. In modern
parlance, a chandelier is a lighting fixture of two or more arms
suspended from the ceiling.
It is difficult to imagine how little light there was in a 17th-century
house after dark. The strongest light came from the fire in the
fireplace. Candles were used sparingly: they were expensive; also, the
light would flicker and pulse, and sometimes smoke, discouraging any
kind of sustained work. After nightfall, most people went to bed.
Ceiling fixtures are not mentioned frequently in inventories of English
or French houses of the 17th century. In the low countries of the
Netherlands, brass chandeliers were becoming more popular. Brass was
produced locally, and it was used in a variety of styles. The typical
Dutch chandelier of this period had six or more radiating branches from
a central body that was round or ovoid in shape. These fixtures were
exported all over Nothern Europe and then imitated in other countries.
As the use of ceiling fixtures proliferated throughout Europe, their
design became an important decorative feature. The great polished globes
and balusters glowed in the light of the candles. The branches became
more intricate and were sometimes attached in two or even three tiers.
The effect was often enhanced by small plates which were set on the arms
to catch the light.
The most striking 17th-century innovations came in France from the use
of rock crystal to reflect the light. Beads of crystal were threaded on
to wire armatures to form arms or linked together to create chains. Rock
crystal was principally produced in Milan, but it was the French who
used it and created exquisite crystal chandeliers. These chandeliers
were admired by the English and widley copied.
By the end of the 17th century, the French were making chandeliers with
local glass. The general effect was the same, but the cost was much
lower. The word for glass in French is "cristal" which is confusing, but
it is not difficult to differentiate between glass, which is clear, and
rock crystal, which is cloudy and much more expensive.
Chandeliers were hung low so that the candles could be lit and snuffed
out. They were usually suspended from a hook by means of a stout cord
that could be decorative. There is no indication that chains were used,
so the vogue for covering the chain with an elaborate sleeve of silk or
velvet came later in the 18th century. At the same time bows of silk or
velvet were sometimes used to disguise the hooks and rings at the top of
the chandelier.
We who have grown up with the steady and efficient light of the electric
bulb find it hard to understand the difficulties of living and working
with candlelight, then oil and gaslight. But we can imagine, because we
sometimes return to it, the romantic glow of candlelight. The flickering
light makes our decor come alive--mirrors sparkle, gilt glitters,
leather glows and brass shines.
There are several antiques shops that carry fine chandeliers in New
York. I have found beautiful Dutch brass fixtures at Garvin Mecking on
East 11th Street, at Midtown Antiques and Hyde Park Antiques on lower
Broadway. Ann Morris on East 60th Street is a marvelous resource for all
kinds of beautiful old fixtures--brass, crystal, iron and steel. I
discovered a most unusual 18th-century wood and crystal chandelier at
Geoffrey Goodman on Broadway. The fixture in the photograph, and other
choice examples, can be seen at Hamilton-Hyre on Bleeker Street.
PHOTO : A decorative six light chandelier made in America at the turn of
the century combines
PHOTO : crystal and blue bristol in an unusual design.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published
under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to
the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright
Clearance Center
1 June 1988
Interior Design
Of all the facets of Oriental art, including calligraphy and painting,
Chinese procelain is the one that strikes a universal chord. The
potter's art has forged the strongest link between the culture of China
and that of the rest of the world, a remarkable achievement for an art
that started as a craft. The origins of Chinese pottery-making are
steeped in legend. Shards of tomb vases and house-hold implements dating
to prehistoric times, 3000-2500 BC, have been discovered in recent
excavations. Some of these neolithic fragments were plain, others were
adorned with fine painted designs. Bits and pieces also prove that, in
addition to painted and unpainted pottery, the prehistoric in Chinese
made glazed earthenware -- indicating that this form of creative
endeavor is a thousand years older than had previously been thought.
From these ancient times to the present, the art and techniques of fine
porcelain making have evolved through many periods and dynasties. Here
are some of the most important.
The Han Dynasty (206 Bc-220 AD)
During this period of external expansion and internal progress, advances
were made in all fields of art. The glazing of pottery became a common
practice. Earthenware was usually red or slate gray, and it was
decorated with an enamel of a grayish yellow color made of lead stained
with copper oxide. On the red clay this produced a green color, which
varied in intensity according to the thickness of the glaze. The custom
of marking earthenware vases dates back to this dynasty. The mark was
engraved on the base, but marked pieces from this era are rare.
The T'ang Dynasty (618-907)
After 300 years of chaos, the T'ang Dynasty brought an era of peace and
prosperity. Much of the earthenware of this period was still made for
burial purposes, but great advances in technique were apparent. Potters
used polychrome painted enamel decoration, producing pieces with clearly
defined patterns in color. This was done by cutting channels in the clay
which kept the colored glazes from running into each other. The typical
T'ang pottery was of a whittish, grayish or pinkish clay, of a
consistency varying from soft earthenware to stoneware, and covered with
thin lead glaze, often in a single color -- green, yellow or blue. There
was also irregular splashing and flecking of colored glazes -- green,
amber and blue on a yellowish background.
The Sung Dynasty (960-1279)
The art of this time communicates a felling of serenity and harmony,
even though the country was insecure politically and economically.
Porcelain was, for the first time, prized for its artistic perfection
rather than solely for its utility. Celadon ware was the most popular
porcelain; it was valued for the color of its glaze -- a subtle olive,
sea or celery green. The finest pieces made for Chinese use were
intended to suggest jade. Other colors were experimented with at Chun
Chou. This ware, of white or yellow clay was heavily enameled in a wide
and gorgeous range of hues, shading from light blue to deep purple.
The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)
China was absorbed into the vast Mongol empire in 1280. The pottery and
porcelain kilns continued to operate during this difficult period, but
this production did not come up to the Sung standard. There was,
however, a great deal of experimentation. The technique of painting
white vessels with underglaze blue was perfected. Overglaze painting in
transparent enamels was also a popular technique.
The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
By the time the Mongol dynasty was overthrown, the Chinese potters were
ready for the renaissance of the porcelain industry that came into ful
flower during this era. Enormous pieces were made and exuberantly
decorated. Porcelain was used for furniture, for wall treatments, for
roof tiles and for pagodas. In addition to the celadon, peachbloom and
blanc de chine (or white ware), blue and white, turquoise, yellow,
crimson, brown and black glazes were admired. Besides painting, other
processes were used to decorate porcelain -- embossing, chiseling and
openwork carving.
The Ch'ing Dynasty (1644-1912)
The Chinese empire again fell into the hands of alien rulers when the
Manchus established the Ch'ing (Pure) dynasty in 1644. At first all was
chaos, but by the end of the century there was fresh flood of creative
energy in the ceramic arts. New monochromatic glazes were developed --
the most important a red, derived from copper and known as sang de
boeuf. Others were deep blue, peacock green, eel-skin yellow, powder
blue, mirror black with gold flecks, green-black, applegreen, iron-red,
tea dust and iron dust.
The French terms famille verte and famille rose were coined to describe
two groups of porcelain that were created during this period for local
use as well as for export to the European market. The famille verte
group, which was hard glaze porcelain, was painted on a white glazed
surface in jewel-like enamels of green, eggplant, yellow, violet-blue
and coral-red, with green predominant. The famille rose group, which was
called soft glaze, featured a rose-pink taht derives from the use of
precipitate of gold. In this porcelain, the pink, deepest crimson to
palest pearl pink, replaces green as the primary color.
The peony vase pictured here is porcelain from the Tung Chih period
(1862-1865). It was made in the province of Kuang Hsi where much of the
Imperial porcelain was designed and made. Its graceful lines and
exquisite painting would make it a valuable addition to any decor.
PHOTO: This handsome bottle-shaped vase with five-color enamel
decoration can be found at China Importing Company on East 10th Street
in New York.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published
under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to
the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright
Clearance Center
1 July 1988
Interior Design
The Renaissance revival in design appeared in America about 1850. It was
first characterized by architectural forms, usually of late 16th- or
17th-century inspiration, and decoration carved with the exuberance of
the French baroque. The style reached its peak at the time of the
Philadelphia Centennial of 1876.
Many of the qualities that characterize the finest furniture of the
Renaissance revival at its height, during the 1870's, are visible in
this illustration of a library table. Made by Allen & Brother for
exhibition at the 1876 Centennial, it is massive in feeling and
architectonic in form. The base is walnut that has been carved, ebonized
and decorated with gilt. The carving is done by hand and it is crisp and
tight; the mythical griffins are fanciful and rococo. The variegated
marble top adds just the right touch of practical luxury to the ornate
base.
Kimbel & Cabus were the most famous cabinetmakers of this period, and
their work dominated in the decade following the Civil War. One of their
most important Renaissance revival pieces, now in the permanent
collection of the Brooklyn Museum, is a richly ornamented cabinet in
rosewood with a striking central portion fitted with a painted ceramic
plaque. Supporting this extravagant roundel are two curved lower
cabinets with marquetry panels. Decorative details like columns and
palmettes are incised and gilded to create a weighty and elaborate piece
of furniture. Other Kimbel & Cabus pieces of this era are distinguished
by their massive appearance and the extravagance of their design.
Alexander-Roux was another well-known cabinetmaker of the time. He came
to this country from France, and he favored the heavily carved French
style. By the early fifties, he was creating furniture for the wealthy
in the rococo and Renaissance revival modes. At the New York Crystal
Palace in 1853 he exhibited a rosewood rococo sofa and a heavy black
walnut Renaissance revival sideboard, its base decorated with four
arched panels framing pendent bunches of flowers, fruit and birds, many
carved in high relief.
Other French cabinetmakers were active in the New York furniture
industry at mid-century. Names like Baudoine, Rinquet LePrince, Marcotte
and Dessoir were represented in the New York and Philadelphia
exhibitions. Julius Dessoir showed an exquisite arcaded rosewood
bookcase in the New York Crystal Palace. This etagere is notable for the
restraint of its design, in contrast to the floridity of much furniture
of the period. It is rococo in its curving shape, Renaissance in the
tight symmetrical carvings and turnings that adorn it.
Renaissance revival was also prominent in the design of silver. Gorham
made many pieces in the current rococo and Renaissance fashion. Bold
naturalistic repousse patterns of flowers, leaves and vines were
festooned on pitchers and tea-pots. The Renaissance fashion known as
"neo grec" in furniture made its appearance in silver, in beading, Greek
key borders, portrait medallions and animal heads and feet. Tiffany &
Company relied on creative artisans like Gustave Herter from Germany to
design silver that would appeal to the newly rich middle class.
By the late '70s, the popularity of Renaissance revival had begun to
wane. For one thing, Grand Rapids took over the manufacture of furniture
in this idiom, and fine hand-made pieces became more and more scarce.
For another, new forms appeared and became fashionable. Eastlake
furniture, named after an Englishman, Sir Charles Eastlake, became the
rage in upper class homes in America. The Arts and Crafts and the
Aesthetic Movement almost eclipsed the Renaissance style with its
earnest espousal of rectilinear shape, honesty of construction and flat
surface decoration.
Because the Renaissance revival period was so short, it is not easy to
find examples of this furniture. There are prime specimens in the
American collections of the Metropolitan Museum, the Brooklyn Museum and
the Hudson River Museum. Renaissance revival in furniture and silver can
be viewed in many of the restored mansions along the Hudson River--great
houses like Olana and the Lockwood-Matthews Mansion. Not many pieces
come on the market. The table in the photograph and other examples of
American furniture and silver of this period can be found at a fairly
new gallery. Catherine Kurland and Lori Zabar have a shop on East 71st
Street in New York that is open by chance or appointment; they
specialize in Renaissance revival, Eastlake, Arts and Crafts and
Aesthetic Movement pieces. Their establishment is worth a visit.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published
under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to
the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright
Clearance Center
1 January 1988
Interior Design
The urge to adorn one's surroundings is age old. Ancient civilizations
used paint to decorate their walls, their furniture and their everyday
objects. The Egyptians, the Etruscans and the Romans painted their
houses and their furniture with extraordinary inventiveness and a
variety of colors.
In the Western world, decorative painting was limited to the furniture
of the church, and was usually carried out by first-rate artists.
Gradually, this practice spread to secular furniture such as trays, beds
and the large storage chests called cassoni. Most of this work was
executed by craftsmen and apprentices; sometimes the master would paint
a special piece for a noble family.
By the 17th century, the Renaissance had created an enormous influence
on decorating in Italy and France. Italian architecture dominated
decoration; ceilings were painted in exaggerated perspective leading
theatrically into the sky. Furniture followed this grandiose pattern,
though not as expertly. The craftsmen who made the wood pieces were not
too meticulous, the furniture was crude. To hide the inferior
workmanship, gesso (a paste of white limestone) was applied and then
carved and gilded, creating a new style.
In France, great architectural panels, moldings and cornices were
painted, striped or gilded. Furniture quickly followed suit. In royal
circles wood pieces were heavily carved and richly gilded. Lesser
nobility had to make do with furniture that was painted white and
touched with gold or simply waxed and enhanced with ormulu (gilt bronze).
England's great halls in the 17th century were lined with fine unpainted
wood paneling. The craftsmanship of their wooden furniture was flawless
and required no camouflage; gilt furniture was created for originality
and grandeur late in the period and continued to be popular in the 18th
century.
Lacquer was introduced to the Western world by Marco Polo in 1295. As
trade with the Orient increased, pieces of lacquer were imported by
Spain and Portugal. Early imitations were produced in Venice, but only
on small boxes and chests. By the 17th century, when Europe entered into
regular trade relations with China, Oriental lacquer became very
fashionable. The imported lacquer ware was taken apart, then
incorporated by cabinet makers into tables, chests, bookcases and
armoires in the prevailing taste.
In the second half of the 18th century, a new phase of decorative
painting spread through Europe. Robert Adam, the great English architect
and designer, visited Rome and was inspired by the spell of antiquity.
Chippendale and Sheraton used real or turned bamboo, gilded, painted and
japanned to lighten the heaviness of wood surfaces. The desire for
brightness in English houses, where gold was considered unsuitable, gave
rise to the fashion of painting classic designs on satinwood. And the
Brighton Pavilion, which was begun early in the 19th century, was
enormously influential in making all kinds of realistic and fantasy
painted finishes popular.
In America, cabinet makers created their own versions of painted and
lacquered furniture. Using native woods, local craftsmen produced
country furniture with ingenious naivete. The kind of decoration they
developed was not unlike that of provincial furniture as it had
flourished in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria and Germany. There,
during the long winters, peasants had painted their chairs, tables and
chests with colorful and artless motifs from daily life. An American
designer named Peter Hunt created a market for country pieces covered
with naif drawings of hearts and flowers in primary colors, and his
style has been widely imitated.
It may be helpful to describe some of the techniques for painting
furniture. Oriental lacquer is varnish applied to clear color, built up
in many coats until a deep, satiny finish is achieved. Japanning is
Western imitation of Oriental lacquer. Faux finishes are painted to look
like other materials. Faux bois is one wood painted to look like
another. Some faux bois looks realistic; some is pure fantasy and exists
only in the artist's imagination. Bamboo is the most widely used painted
wood finish. Faux marbre is wood painted to look like marble, and here
again the painter may duplicate the real thing, or invent his own. Then
there are all the techniques available for painting wood. There is
antiquing, which involves a base color, an over-coat and a glaze. There
is strie (which gives a hazy striped effect), spatter (which looks
dotted) or sponged (which looks mottled). There are tortoise shell
finishes in life-like browns and black, and fanciful reds and blues and
greens. There are finishes that look like semi precious stones --
malachite, lapis lazuli, quartz and porphyry. There are all the ways of
adding gold to painted furniture: burnishing, striping, gilding and
leafing. And of course there are the myriad styles and techniques of
painting pictures on furniture--baskets of flowers, ribbons and bows,
stripes and swirls, figures, landscapes, even scenes from country life.
There are many other styles and techniques in the creation of painted
furniture, but these examples illustrate the range and variety of this
fascinating category of antiques.
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under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
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1 February 1988
Interior Design
When it comes to designing furniture, practicality is usually the first
consideration. Chairs were invented for sitting; beds were conceived for
sleeping. After the basic requirements for utility are satisfied,
creativity adds art to usefulness.
Campaign furniture was born out of a very specific need. It was designed
to be used by military personnel when they were in the field. It was
portable and collapsible and was made for English officers stationed in
the colonies during the 18th and 19th centuries. Also called colonial
furniture, it included such pieces as chairs, settees, chests, desks and
beds. The pieces were made in British India, and later in China,
according to the British furniture styles of the day. Each officer had
his own campaign chest that would hold his clothing and personal
effects. When he was shipped to another post, his chest would be sent
with all his belongings to his new station.
The campaign chest was usually made of mahogany, teak or rosewood,
depending on the province it which it was ordered. It might have been
made of camphorwood if it came from China or the Far East. It had
recessed brass handles, protective brass corners and iron strap handles
for carrying. There were other pieces of campaign furniture as well;
sometimes an officer would store his gear in his desk, which would be
handled and shipped like a chest, with identical brass hardware and iron
straps. Other campaign pieces like chairs and sofas and beds had
different functions. They were designed to fold up and fit into a
compact package for transport.
The idea for campaign furniture originated from the camp equipment of
officers in the Napoleonic and Peninsula Wars. These soldiers took an
enormous number of bulky possessions--clothes and personal effects--with
them from camp to camp. They would use a military chest of drawers made
in two parts, the top half incorporating a secretary with a fall front.
This was a purely functional, undecorated piece with simple folding
handles inset in the fronts of the drawers. Brass strips protected the
corners and simple turned feet unscrewed for traveling. This style was
adapted by the British Colonials in India.
American camping furniture, designed not for elite but for common use,
was more compact and practical. An 1864 patented combination camp chest
contained a canvas-covered folding frame that served as a char or a bed;
leaves could be attached to create a table. Also there was a cooking
stove, utensils and a drawer for papers and linen.
A famours American example is the field bed of George Washington in the
Revolutionary War. This was a portable bed with a light framework and
legs that folded up into the frame. This kind of bed evolved into the
elaborate Sheraton bed with the arched tester and framework concealed by
curtains and draperies.
Campaign chests and other pieces are enjoying a new vogue. With the
popularity of the English country style's emphasis on practicality and
spare beauty, it is not surprising that campaign furniture is in demand.
Ann Morris, whose small but handsome chest is pictured here, is a good
New York resource for all kinds of campaign furniture. Kentshire
Galleries has imported many fine examples of the genre, and Garvin
Mecking occasionally comes across an unusual piece. Both are in New
york. Hyde Park Antiques is another New York source where you might find
a first-rate campaign chest. Finding one takes enthusiasm and zeal--this
kind of furniture is scarce and highly prized, so when a piece appears
on the market, it is quickly sold.
I have used campaign chests in many ways--as night stands in a bedroom
for extra storage, as end tables in an informal study. A campaign desk
is ideal for a busy executive or a teen-ager with many hobbies. I have
never had the good fortune to buy a campaign sofa (although I have seen
afew with sold tickets), but I can picture one in a Southampton cottage.
This furniture, created to be useful in one era, has survived because of
its beauty and fine workmanship to be used and admired again.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published
under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to
the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright
Clearance Center
1 August 1988
Interior Design
Chinese wedding boxes are the hope chests of the East, with one major
difference. While the custom of buying and storing clothing and
household goods for use after marriage has been around for two or even
three hundred years in the West, in China the practice goes back one
thousand years.
In ancient China, the wedding boxes were a sign of conspicuous
consumption. The more boxes the family contributed to the marriage, the
wealthier they were thought to be, and the higher on the social scale.
Before the wedding ceremony, the boxes were paraded through the streets
of the town or city. This event was a matter of great interest to the
townspeople; they would gather to observe, to gossip and to speculate
about the size and the quality of the dowry contained in the boxes.
The boxes varied in size from a few inches to the dimensions of large
traveling trunks, and they were made by communal effort. First a local
carpenter would make a simple box and lid of pine, balsam or some other
soft wood. Another craftsman would cover it with pigskin, stitching the
leather through the wood. One skin was used for the top of the lid and
the back of the box to attach the lid and create a simple hinge. Then an
artist would paint the leather-covered box with a wedding scene, a
landscape or a pattern of branches, flowers and birds. Finally, with the
addition of brass handles and a decorative round lock and key, the box
was complete.
Before the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) wedding boxes were simpler. The wood
box was painted and covered with lacquer; the only ornaments were the
brass closure and handles. During the Yuan Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644) that followed, the leather-covered boxes proliferated. The
pigskin was painted vermilion, reddish brown, dark brown, black or
white. In later years, the designs on the boxes became increasingly
ornate, but many of the examples with less decoration remain
exceptionally beautiful.
Betty Ecke's pamphlet on Chinese Folk Art, which accompanied an exhibit
several years ago at the China Institute, included some charming
examples of wedding boxes. Her designation of the boxes as folk art is
illuminating. One reason is their utility--they were invariably created
for a specific purpose. Another consideration is the fact that they were
made by the joint efforts of several local artisans rather than one
artist with a singular vision.
It is interesting to speculate on how these beautiful and useful boxes
came to this country. Missionaries to China probably brought them back
as souvenirs. Chinese immigrants undoubtedly used the boxes to pack
their belongings for their trip to the new world. Clipper ships that
sailed the Eastern routes and traded with the Orient returned with boxes
and trunks filled with textiles and spices.
Chinese wedding boxes are not easy to find. In New York Vito Giallo,
whose small shop on Madison Avenue is full of treasures, occasionally
discovers one. The box in the photograph, which belongs to me, was
hidden beneath a pile of paisleys in his shop. Garvin Mecking on East
11th Street has the best selection, although his last batch was sold as
it was unpacked. Tom Ballin on Second Avenue has some from time to time.
I have located most wedding boxes (and if the price is right I buy them
whenever I see them) out of Manhattan. New England is a good source, not
surprising in view of the fact that clipper ships sailed from Northeast
harbors. I found one gorgeous box painted with peonies and butterflies
in Chicago, and a small black box with white dogwood in Virginia. Once
in a while I discover a fabulous large trunk at an antique show.
These boxes make wonderful accessories. I have used small ones on coffee
tables to hold coasters and cocktail napkins. In my living room is a
stack of wedding trunks; the largest one accommodates my collection of
patchwork quilt tops, the middle one is packed with all our loose family
snapshots, and the smallest one holds odds and ends of lace and
embroidery. A large box can be used as a coffee table, with or without a
wood frame. I usually have a glass top made to preserve the painting.
When a square box turns up, I use it as an end table for an upholstered
chair.
With all their variety of size and shape, color and theme, Chinese
wedding boxes are infinitely useful in decorating.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published
under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to
the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright
Clearance Center
1 April 1988
Interior Design
The Arts and Crafts movement developed in England as a response to
several strands of 19th-century thought. politically, it was a revolt
against the miseries of industrialization, and the decline in quality
resulting from mass production. It was also a protest against the
encroachment of industrialism on the workman's way of life; a primary
goal was to improve living and working conditions for the ordinary
working man.
Socially, the movement was an attempt to codify the principle that a
nation's art was a symptom of its moral stability. Fine craftsmanship
was equated with etical vigor, and the search for an "English Art for
England" led to the adoption of Gothic as the best expression of the
national idiom. "Fitness for purpose was defined in relation to life
among the craftsmen and not to the world of industry and commerce in
general.
William Morris is generally recognized as the father of Arts and Crafts,
although A. W. Pugin and John Ruskin, who preceded him, strongly
influenced his thinking. All three men embraced medievalism as a style
to bring art back to the people. pugin was a respected architect, and
Ruskin was the most innovative and influential art critic of his time.
Morris was educated at Oxford where he met Edward Burne-Jones, an artist
who became a life-long friend. On a holiday with Burne-jones, Moris
decided not to enter the church, as he had planned, but to devote his
life to art. He became an architect, and joined the firm of G.E. Street.
Street's chief assistant was Philip Webb who later designed Morris's
house and collaborated with him in setting up Morris & Company. After
brief strints in architecture and painting, Morris realized his true
vocation as a pattern designer. In this field his talent was prodigious,
and he created wallpaper, fabrics, book decorations and designs for
tapes-try weaving. In 1861 Morris formed his own decorating firm, just
in time to prepare an exhibit for the International Exhibition in the
following year.
Wallpapers in vibrant colors and naturalists designs were among the
earliest products of the firm, along with Philip Webb's straight-line
furniture and the exotic stained glass panels of Burne-Jones, Dante
Rossetti and Ford Madox Brown. Fabrics in the same strong colors and
flowing patterns came along in the late '60s and tapestries and rugs in
the '80s. Morris's influence on all of the decorative arts of the second
half of the 19th century can hardly be over-estimated.
America had had its own perfect example of the Arts and Crafts ideal in
the Shaker communities in New York State at the end of the 18th century.
These isolated enclaves preached a philosophy of equality of the sexes,
spiritual purity and honest craftsmanship. In 1852 a chair factory was
founded to make furniture for outside sale; its principles were based on
the ideals of "regularity is beauty" and "beauty rests on utility." The
most important proselytizer of Arts and crafts ideals in america was
Gustav Strickley. Strickley had been trained in Syracuse, New York. as a
stonemason and furniture-maker; after a trip to Europe, where he met
several members of Morris & Co., he returned home to establish his own
workshops. He also began to publish a magazine called The Craftsman, the
first issue of which was a celegration of the artistic as well as the
social and aims of William Morris and his colleagues.
The chair pictured here is an unusual example of the creativity of
another Arts and Crafts designer, Charles Francis Annesley Voysey.
Voysey studied architecture at Dulwich College. In 1882 he opened his
own office, but concentrated first on decorative work rather than
architecture, selling his first patterns for fabrics and wallpaper. In
1884 he joined the Art Workers' Guild and soon after he designed his
first house, for which he created most of the furniture, the decoration
and the fittings. His characteristic style -- simple, linear and with
almost no surface embellishment -- was to be widely copied.
The prototype of this chair, which was made in 1902, was the only piece
of upholstered furniture Voysey ever designed. Antiques dealer David
Allan, who bought the chair in London because he fell in love with it,
and then discovered that it was a Voysey, describes it as almost
decadent in its luxury. It is more formal and lavish than the simple,
austere, unpretentious furniture Voysey became known for. "But," he adds
with a smile, "it's a wonderful piece of furniture, created by a
splendid craftsman at his hight of power."
PHOTO: An extraordinary piece of Arts and Crafts furniture designed by
C. F.A. Voysey and exhibited by David Allan antiques at 812 Broadway,
New York.
COPYRIGHT 1988 Reed Business Information. This material is published
under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to
the Gale Group. For permission to reuse this article, contact Copyright
Clearance Center
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